File: grep.info, Node: Top, Next: Introduction, Up: (dir) grep **** 'grep' prints lines that contain a match for one or more patterns. This manual is for version 3.7 of GNU Grep. This manual is for 'grep', a pattern matching engine. Copyright (C) 1999-2002, 2005, 2008-2021 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". * Menu: * Introduction:: Introduction. * Invoking:: Command-line options, environment, exit status. * Regular Expressions:: Regular Expressions. * Usage:: Examples. * Performance:: Performance tuning. * Reporting Bugs:: Reporting Bugs. * Copying:: License terms for this manual. * Index:: Combined index. File: grep.info, Node: Introduction, Next: Invoking, Prev: Top, Up: Top 1 Introduction ************** Given one or more patterns, 'grep' searches input files for matches to the patterns. When it finds a match in a line, it copies the line to standard output (by default), or produces whatever other sort of output you have requested with options. Though 'grep' expects to do the matching on text, it has no limits on input line length other than available memory, and it can match arbitrary characters within a line. If the final byte of an input file is not a newline, 'grep' silently supplies one. Since newline is also a separator for the list of patterns, there is no way to match newline characters in a text. File: grep.info, Node: Invoking, Next: Regular Expressions, Prev: Introduction, Up: Top 2 Invoking 'grep' ***************** The general synopsis of the 'grep' command line is grep [OPTION...] [PATTERNS] [FILE...] There can be zero or more OPTION arguments, and zero or more FILE arguments. The PATTERNS argument contains one or more patterns separated by newlines, and is omitted when patterns are given via the '-e PATTERNS' or '-f FILE' options. Typically PATTERNS should be quoted when 'grep' is used in a shell command. * Menu: * Command-line Options:: Short and long names, grouped by category. * Environment Variables:: POSIX, GNU generic, and GNU grep specific. * Exit Status:: Exit status returned by 'grep'. * grep Programs:: 'grep' programs. File: grep.info, Node: Command-line Options, Next: Environment Variables, Up: Invoking 2.1 Command-line Options ======================== 'grep' comes with a rich set of options: some from POSIX and some being GNU extensions. Long option names are always a GNU extension, even for options that are from POSIX specifications. Options that are specified by POSIX, under their short names, are explicitly marked as such to facilitate POSIX-portable programming. A few option names are provided for compatibility with older or more exotic implementations. * Menu: * Generic Program Information:: * Matching Control:: * General Output Control:: * Output Line Prefix Control:: * Context Line Control:: * File and Directory Selection:: * Other Options:: Several additional options control which variant of the 'grep' matching engine is used. *Note grep Programs::. File: grep.info, Node: Generic Program Information, Next: Matching Control, Up: Command-line Options 2.1.1 Generic Program Information --------------------------------- '--help' Print a usage message briefly summarizing the command-line options and the bug-reporting address, then exit. '-V' '--version' Print the version number of 'grep' to the standard output stream. This version number should be included in all bug reports. File: grep.info, Node: Matching Control, Next: General Output Control, Prev: Generic Program Information, Up: Command-line Options 2.1.2 Matching Control ---------------------- '-e PATTERNS' '--regexp=PATTERNS' Use PATTERNS as one or more patterns; newlines within PATTERNS separate each pattern from the next. If this option is used multiple times or is combined with the '-f' ('--file') option, search for all patterns given. Typically PATTERNS should be quoted when 'grep' is used in a shell command. ('-e' is specified by POSIX.) '-f FILE' '--file=FILE' Obtain patterns from FILE, one per line. If this option is used multiple times or is combined with the '-e' ('--regexp') option, search for all patterns given. The empty file contains zero patterns, and therefore matches nothing. ('-f' is specified by POSIX.) '-i' '-y' '--ignore-case' Ignore case distinctions in patterns and input data, so that characters that differ only in case match each other. Although this is straightforward when letters differ in case only via lowercase-uppercase pairs, the behavior is unspecified in other situations. For example, uppercase "S" has an unusual lowercase counterpart "??" (Unicode character U+017F, LATIN SMALL LETTER LONG S) in many locales, and it is unspecified whether this unusual character matches "S" or "s" even though uppercasing it yields "S". Another example: the lowercase German letter "ss" (U+00DF, LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S) is normally capitalized as the two-character string "SS" but it does not match "SS", and it might not match the uppercase letter "???" (U+1E9E, LATIN CAPITAL LETTER SHARP S) even though lowercasing the latter yields the former. '-y' is an obsolete synonym that is provided for compatibility. ('-i' is specified by POSIX.) '--no-ignore-case' Do not ignore case distinctions in patterns and input data. This is the default. This option is useful for passing to shell scripts that already use '-i', in order to cancel its effects because the two options override each other. '-v' '--invert-match' Invert the sense of matching, to select non-matching lines. ('-v' is specified by POSIX.) '-w' '--word-regexp' Select only those lines containing matches that form whole words. The test is that the matching substring must either be at the beginning of the line, or preceded by a non-word constituent character. Similarly, it must be either at the end of the line or followed by a non-word constituent character. Word constituent characters are letters, digits, and the underscore. This option has no effect if '-x' is also specified. Because the '-w' option can match a substring that does not begin and end with word constituents, it differs from surrounding a regular expression with '\<' and '\>'. For example, although 'grep -w @' matches a line containing only '@', 'grep '\<@\>'' cannot match any line because '@' is not a word constituent. *Note The Backslash Character and Special Expressions::. '-x' '--line-regexp' Select only those matches that exactly match the whole line. For regular expression patterns, this is like parenthesizing each pattern and then surrounding it with '^' and '$'. ('-x' is specified by POSIX.) File: grep.info, Node: General Output Control, Next: Output Line Prefix Control, Prev: Matching Control, Up: Command-line Options 2.1.3 General Output Control ---------------------------- '-c' '--count' Suppress normal output; instead print a count of matching lines for each input file. With the '-v' ('--invert-match') option, count non-matching lines. ('-c' is specified by POSIX.) '--color[=WHEN]' '--colour[=WHEN]' Surround the matched (non-empty) strings, matching lines, context lines, file names, line numbers, byte offsets, and separators (for fields and groups of context lines) with escape sequences to display them in color on the terminal. The colors are defined by the environment variable 'GREP_COLORS' and default to 'ms=01;31:mc=01;31:sl=:cx=:fn=35:ln=32:bn=32:se=36' for bold red matched text, magenta file names, green line numbers, green byte offsets, cyan separators, and default terminal colors otherwise. The deprecated environment variable 'GREP_COLOR' is still supported, but its setting does not have priority; it defaults to '01;31' (bold red) which only covers the color for matched text. WHEN is 'never', 'always', or 'auto'. '-L' '--files-without-match' Suppress normal output; instead print the name of each input file from which no output would normally have been printed. '-l' '--files-with-matches' Suppress normal output; instead print the name of each input file from which output would normally have been printed. Scanning each input file stops upon first match. ('-l' is specified by POSIX.) '-m NUM' '--max-count=NUM' Stop after the first NUM selected lines. If the input is standard input from a regular file, and NUM selected lines are output, 'grep' ensures that the standard input is positioned just after the last selected line before exiting, regardless of the presence of trailing context lines. This enables a calling process to resume a search. For example, the following shell script makes use of it: while grep -m 1 'PATTERN' do echo xxxx done < FILE But the following probably will not work because a pipe is not a regular file: # This probably will not work. cat FILE | while grep -m 1 'PATTERN' do echo xxxx done When 'grep' stops after NUM selected lines, it outputs any trailing context lines. When the '-c' or '--count' option is also used, 'grep' does not output a count greater than NUM. When the '-v' or '--invert-match' option is also used, 'grep' stops after outputting NUM non-matching lines. '-o' '--only-matching' Print only the matched (non-empty) parts of matching lines, with each such part on a separate output line. Output lines use the same delimiters as input, and delimiters are null bytes if '-z' ('--null-data') is also used (*note Other Options::). '-q' '--quiet' '--silent' Quiet; do not write anything to standard output. Exit immediately with zero status if any match is found, even if an error was detected. Also see the '-s' or '--no-messages' option. ('-q' is specified by POSIX.) '-s' '--no-messages' Suppress error messages about nonexistent or unreadable files. Portability note: unlike GNU 'grep', 7th Edition Unix 'grep' did not conform to POSIX, because it lacked '-q' and its '-s' option behaved like GNU 'grep''s '-q' option.(1) USG-style 'grep' also lacked '-q' but its '-s' option behaved like GNU 'grep''s. Portable shell scripts should avoid both '-q' and '-s' and should redirect standard and error output to '/dev/null' instead. ('-s' is specified by POSIX.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Of course, 7th Edition Unix predated POSIX by several years! File: grep.info, Node: Output Line Prefix Control, Next: Context Line Control, Prev: General Output Control, Up: Command-line Options 2.1.4 Output Line Prefix Control -------------------------------- When several prefix fields are to be output, the order is always file name, line number, and byte offset, regardless of the order in which these options were specified. '-b' '--byte-offset' Print the 0-based byte offset within the input file before each line of output. If '-o' ('--only-matching') is specified, print the offset of the matching part itself. '-H' '--with-filename' Print the file name for each match. This is the default when there is more than one file to search. '-h' '--no-filename' Suppress the prefixing of file names on output. This is the default when there is only one file (or only standard input) to search. '--label=LABEL' Display input actually coming from standard input as input coming from file LABEL. This can be useful for commands that transform a file's contents before searching; e.g.: gzip -cd foo.gz | grep --label=foo -H 'some pattern' '-n' '--line-number' Prefix each line of output with the 1-based line number within its input file. ('-n' is specified by POSIX.) '-T' '--initial-tab' Make sure that the first character of actual line content lies on a tab stop, so that the alignment of tabs looks normal. This is useful with options that prefix their output to the actual content: '-H', '-n', and '-b'. This may also prepend spaces to output line numbers and byte offsets so that lines from a single file all start at the same column. '-Z' '--null' Output a zero byte (the ASCII NUL character) instead of the character that normally follows a file name. For example, 'grep -lZ' outputs a zero byte after each file name instead of the usual newline. This option makes the output unambiguous, even in the presence of file names containing unusual characters like newlines. This option can be used with commands like 'find -print0', 'perl -0', 'sort -z', and 'xargs -0' to process arbitrary file names, even those that contain newline characters. File: grep.info, Node: Context Line Control, Next: File and Directory Selection, Prev: Output Line Prefix Control, Up: Command-line Options 2.1.5 Context Line Control -------------------------- "Context lines" are non-matching lines that are near a matching line. They are output only if one of the following options are used. Regardless of how these options are set, 'grep' never outputs any given line more than once. If the '-o' ('--only-matching') option is specified, these options have no effect and a warning is given upon their use. '-A NUM' '--after-context=NUM' Print NUM lines of trailing context after matching lines. '-B NUM' '--before-context=NUM' Print NUM lines of leading context before matching lines. '-C NUM' '-NUM' '--context=NUM' Print NUM lines of leading and trailing output context. '--group-separator=STRING' When '-A', '-B' or '-C' are in use, print STRING instead of '--' between groups of lines. '--no-group-separator' When '-A', '-B' or '-C' are in use, do not print a separator between groups of lines. Here are some points about how 'grep' chooses the separator to print between prefix fields and line content: * Matching lines normally use ':' as a separator between prefix fields and actual line content. * Context (i.e., non-matching) lines use '-' instead. * When context is not specified, matching lines are simply output one right after another. * When context is specified, lines that are adjacent in the input form a group and are output one right after another, while by default a separator appears between non-adjacent groups. * The default separator is a '--' line; its presence and appearance can be changed with the options above. * Each group may contain several matching lines when they are close enough to each other that two adjacent groups connect and can merge into a single contiguous one. File: grep.info, Node: File and Directory Selection, Next: Other Options, Prev: Context Line Control, Up: Command-line Options 2.1.6 File and Directory Selection ---------------------------------- '-a' '--text' Process a binary file as if it were text; this is equivalent to the '--binary-files=text' option. '--binary-files=TYPE' If a file's data or metadata indicate that the file contains binary data, assume that the file is of type TYPE. Non-text bytes indicate binary data; these are either output bytes that are improperly encoded for the current locale (*note Environment Variables::), or null input bytes when the '-z' ('--null-data') option is not given (*note Other Options::). By default, TYPE is 'binary', and 'grep' suppresses output after null input binary data is discovered, and suppresses output lines that contain improperly encoded data. When some output is suppressed, 'grep' follows any output with a one-line message saying that a binary file matches. If TYPE is 'without-match', when 'grep' discovers null input binary data it assumes that the rest of the file does not match; this is equivalent to the '-I' option. If TYPE is 'text', 'grep' processes binary data as if it were text; this is equivalent to the '-a' option. When TYPE is 'binary', 'grep' may treat non-text bytes as line terminators even without the '-z' ('--null-data') option. This means choosing 'binary' versus 'text' can affect whether a pattern matches a file. For example, when TYPE is 'binary' the pattern 'q$' might match 'q' immediately followed by a null byte, even though this is not matched when TYPE is 'text'. Conversely, when TYPE is 'binary' the pattern '.' (period) might not match a null byte. _Warning:_ The '-a' ('--binary-files=text') option might output binary garbage, which can have nasty side effects if the output is a terminal and if the terminal driver interprets some of it as commands. On the other hand, when reading files whose text encodings are unknown, it can be helpful to use '-a' or to set 'LC_ALL='C'' in the environment, in order to find more matches even if the matches are unsafe for direct display. '-D ACTION' '--devices=ACTION' If an input file is a device, FIFO, or socket, use ACTION to process it. If ACTION is 'read', all devices are read just as if they were ordinary files. If ACTION is 'skip', devices, FIFOs, and sockets are silently skipped. By default, devices are read if they are on the command line or if the '-R' ('--dereference-recursive') option is used, and are skipped if they are encountered recursively and the '-r' ('--recursive') option is used. This option has no effect on a file that is read via standard input. '-d ACTION' '--directories=ACTION' If an input file is a directory, use ACTION to process it. By default, ACTION is 'read', which means that directories are read just as if they were ordinary files (some operating systems and file systems disallow this, and will cause 'grep' to print error messages for every directory or silently skip them). If ACTION is 'skip', directories are silently skipped. If ACTION is 'recurse', 'grep' reads all files under each directory, recursively, following command-line symbolic links and skipping other symlinks; this is equivalent to the '-r' option. '--exclude=GLOB' Skip any command-line file with a name suffix that matches the pattern GLOB, using wildcard matching; a name suffix is either the whole name, or a trailing part that starts with a non-slash character immediately after a slash ('/') in the name. When searching recursively, skip any subfile whose base name matches GLOB; the base name is the part after the last slash. A pattern can use '*', '?', and '['...']' as wildcards, and '\' to quote a wildcard or backslash character literally. '--exclude-from=FILE' Skip files whose name matches any of the patterns read from FILE (using wildcard matching as described under '--exclude'). '--exclude-dir=GLOB' Skip any command-line directory with a name suffix that matches the pattern GLOB. When searching recursively, skip any subdirectory whose base name matches GLOB. Ignore any redundant trailing slashes in GLOB. '-I' Process a binary file as if it did not contain matching data; this is equivalent to the '--binary-files=without-match' option. '--include=GLOB' Search only files whose name matches GLOB, using wildcard matching as described under '--exclude'. If contradictory '--include' and '--exclude' options are given, the last matching one wins. If no '--include' or '--exclude' options match, a file is included unless the first such option is '--include'. '-r' '--recursive' For each directory operand, read and process all files in that directory, recursively. Follow symbolic links on the command line, but skip symlinks that are encountered recursively. Note that if no file operand is given, grep searches the working directory. This is the same as the '--directories=recurse' option. '-R' '--dereference-recursive' For each directory operand, read and process all files in that directory, recursively, following all symbolic links. File: grep.info, Node: Other Options, Prev: File and Directory Selection, Up: Command-line Options 2.1.7 Other Options ------------------- '--' Delimit the option list. Later arguments, if any, are treated as operands even if they begin with '-'. For example, 'grep PAT -- -file1 file2' searches for the pattern PAT in the files named '-file1' and 'file2'. '--line-buffered' Use line buffering for standard output, regardless of output device. By default, standard output is line buffered for interactive devices, and is fully buffered otherwise. With full buffering, the output buffer is flushed when full; with line buffering, the buffer is also flushed after every output line. The buffer size is system dependent. '-U' '--binary' On platforms that distinguish between text and binary I/O, use the latter when reading and writing files other than the user's terminal, so that all input bytes are read and written as-is. This overrides the default behavior where 'grep' follows the operating system's advice whether to use text or binary I/O. On MS-Windows when 'grep' uses text I/O it reads a carriage return-newline pair as a newline and a Control-Z as end-of-file, and it writes a newline as a carriage return-newline pair. When using text I/O '--byte-offset' ('-b') counts and '--binary-files' heuristics apply to input data after text-I/O processing. Also, the '--binary-files' heuristics need not agree with the '--binary' option; that is, they may treat the data as text even if '--binary' is given, or vice versa. *Note File and Directory Selection::. This option has no effect on GNU and other POSIX-compatible platforms, which do not distinguish text from binary I/O. '-z' '--null-data' Treat input and output data as sequences of lines, each terminated by a zero byte (the ASCII NUL character) instead of a newline. Like the '-Z' or '--null' option, this option can be used with commands like 'sort -z' to process arbitrary file names. File: grep.info, Node: Environment Variables, Next: Exit Status, Prev: Command-line Options, Up: Invoking 2.2 Environment Variables ========================= The behavior of 'grep' is affected by the following environment variables. The locale for category 'LC_FOO' is specified by examining the three environment variables 'LC_ALL', 'LC_FOO', and 'LANG', in that order. The first of these variables that is set specifies the locale. For example, if 'LC_ALL' is not set, but 'LC_COLLATE' is set to 'pt_BR', then the Brazilian Portuguese locale is used for the 'LC_COLLATE' category. As a special case for 'LC_MESSAGES' only, the environment variable 'LANGUAGE' can contain a colon-separated list of languages that overrides the three environment variables that ordinarily specify the 'LC_MESSAGES' category. The 'C' locale is used if none of these environment variables are set, if the locale catalog is not installed, or if 'grep' was not compiled with national language support (NLS). The shell command 'locale -a' lists locales that are currently available. Many of the environment variables in the following list let you control highlighting using Select Graphic Rendition (SGR) commands interpreted by the terminal or terminal emulator. (See the section in the documentation of your text terminal for permitted values and their meanings as character attributes.) These substring values are integers in decimal representation and can be concatenated with semicolons. 'grep' takes care of assembling the result into a complete SGR sequence ('\33['...'m'). Common values to concatenate include '1' for bold, '4' for underline, '5' for blink, '7' for inverse, '39' for default foreground color, '30' to '37' for foreground colors, '90' to '97' for 16-color mode foreground colors, '38;5;0' to '38;5;255' for 88-color and 256-color modes foreground colors, '49' for default background color, '40' to '47' for background colors, '100' to '107' for 16-color mode background colors, and '48;5;0' to '48;5;255' for 88-color and 256-color modes background colors. The two-letter names used in the 'GREP_COLORS' environment variable (and some of the others) refer to terminal "capabilities," the ability of a terminal to highlight text, or change its color, and so on. These capabilities are stored in an online database and accessed by the 'terminfo' library. 'GREP_COLOR' This variable specifies the color used to highlight matched (non-empty) text. It is deprecated in favor of 'GREP_COLORS', but still supported. The 'mt', 'ms', and 'mc' capabilities of 'GREP_COLORS' have priority over it. It can only specify the color used to highlight the matching non-empty text in any matching line (a selected line when the '-v' command-line option is omitted, or a context line when '-v' is specified). The default is '01;31', which means a bold red foreground text on the terminal's default background. 'GREP_COLORS' This variable specifies the colors and other attributes used to highlight various parts of the output. Its value is a colon-separated list of 'terminfo' capabilities that defaults to 'ms=01;31:mc=01;31:sl=:cx=:fn=35:ln=32:bn=32:se=36' with the 'rv' and 'ne' boolean capabilities omitted (i.e., false). Supported capabilities are as follows. 'sl=' SGR substring for whole selected lines (i.e., matching lines when the '-v' command-line option is omitted, or non-matching lines when '-v' is specified). If however the boolean 'rv' capability and the '-v' command-line option are both specified, it applies to context matching lines instead. The default is empty (i.e., the terminal's default color pair). 'cx=' SGR substring for whole context lines (i.e., non-matching lines when the '-v' command-line option is omitted, or matching lines when '-v' is specified). If however the boolean 'rv' capability and the '-v' command-line option are both specified, it applies to selected non-matching lines instead. The default is empty (i.e., the terminal's default color pair). 'rv' Boolean value that reverses (swaps) the meanings of the 'sl=' and 'cx=' capabilities when the '-v' command-line option is specified. The default is false (i.e., the capability is omitted). 'mt=01;31' SGR substring for matching non-empty text in any matching line (i.e., a selected line when the '-v' command-line option is omitted, or a context line when '-v' is specified). Setting this is equivalent to setting both 'ms=' and 'mc=' at once to the same value. The default is a bold red text foreground over the current line background. 'ms=01;31' SGR substring for matching non-empty text in a selected line. (This is used only when the '-v' command-line option is omitted.) The effect of the 'sl=' (or 'cx=' if 'rv') capability remains active when this takes effect. The default is a bold red text foreground over the current line background. 'mc=01;31' SGR substring for matching non-empty text in a context line. (This is used only when the '-v' command-line option is specified.) The effect of the 'cx=' (or 'sl=' if 'rv') capability remains active when this takes effect. The default is a bold red text foreground over the current line background. 'fn=35' SGR substring for file names prefixing any content line. The default is a magenta text foreground over the terminal's default background. 'ln=32' SGR substring for line numbers prefixing any content line. The default is a green text foreground over the terminal's default background. 'bn=32' SGR substring for byte offsets prefixing any content line. The default is a green text foreground over the terminal's default background. 'se=36' SGR substring for separators that are inserted between selected line fields (':'), between context line fields ('-'), and between groups of adjacent lines when nonzero context is specified ('--'). The default is a cyan text foreground over the terminal's default background. 'ne' Boolean value that prevents clearing to the end of line using Erase in Line (EL) to Right ('\33[K') each time a colorized item ends. This is needed on terminals on which EL is not supported. It is otherwise useful on terminals for which the 'back_color_erase' ('bce') boolean 'terminfo' capability does not apply, when the chosen highlight colors do not affect the background, or when EL is too slow or causes too much flicker. The default is false (i.e., the capability is omitted). Note that boolean capabilities have no '='... part. They are omitted (i.e., false) by default and become true when specified. 'LC_ALL' 'LC_COLLATE' 'LANG' These variables specify the locale for the 'LC_COLLATE' category, which might affect how range expressions like '[a-z]' are interpreted. 'LC_ALL' 'LC_CTYPE' 'LANG' These variables specify the locale for the 'LC_CTYPE' category, which determines the type of characters, e.g., which characters are whitespace. This category also determines the character encoding. *Note Character Encoding::. 'LANGUAGE' 'LC_ALL' 'LC_MESSAGES' 'LANG' These variables specify the locale for the 'LC_MESSAGES' category, which determines the language that 'grep' uses for messages. The default 'C' locale uses American English messages. 'POSIXLY_CORRECT' If set, 'grep' behaves as POSIX requires; otherwise, 'grep' behaves more like other GNU programs. POSIX requires that options that follow file names must be treated as file names; by default, such options are permuted to the front of the operand list and are treated as options. Also, 'POSIXLY_CORRECT' disables special handling of an invalid bracket expression. *Note invalid-bracket-expr::. '_N_GNU_nonoption_argv_flags_' (Here 'N' is 'grep''s numeric process ID.) If the Ith character of this environment variable's value is '1', do not consider the Ith operand of 'grep' to be an option, even if it appears to be one. A shell can put this variable in the environment for each command it runs, specifying which operands are the results of file name wildcard expansion and therefore should not be treated as options. This behavior is available only with the GNU C library, and only when 'POSIXLY_CORRECT' is not set. The 'GREP_OPTIONS' environment variable of 'grep' 2.20 and earlier is no longer supported, as it caused problems when writing portable scripts. To make arbitrary changes to how 'grep' works, you can use an alias or script instead. For example, if 'grep' is in the directory '/usr/bin' you can prepend '$HOME/bin' to your 'PATH' and create an executable script '$HOME/bin/grep' containing the following: #! /bin/sh export PATH=/usr/bin exec grep --color=auto --devices=skip "$@" File: grep.info, Node: Exit Status, Next: grep Programs, Prev: Environment Variables, Up: Invoking 2.3 Exit Status =============== Normally the exit status is 0 if a line is selected, 1 if no lines were selected, and 2 if an error occurred. However, if the '-q' or '--quiet' or '--silent' option is used and a line is selected, the exit status is 0 even if an error occurred. Other 'grep' implementations may exit with status greater than 2 on error. File: grep.info, Node: grep Programs, Prev: Exit Status, Up: Invoking 2.4 'grep' Programs =================== 'grep' searches the named input files for lines containing a match to the given patterns. By default, 'grep' prints the matching lines. A file named '-' stands for standard input. If no input is specified, 'grep' searches the working directory '.' if given a command-line option specifying recursion; otherwise, 'grep' searches standard input. There are four major variants of 'grep', controlled by the following options. '-G' '--basic-regexp' Interpret patterns as basic regular expressions (BREs). This is the default. '-E' '--extended-regexp' Interpret patterns as extended regular expressions (EREs). ('-E' is specified by POSIX.) '-F' '--fixed-strings' Interpret patterns as fixed strings, not regular expressions. ('-F' is specified by POSIX.) '-P' '--perl-regexp' Interpret patterns as Perl-compatible regular expressions (PCREs). PCRE support is here to stay, but consider this option experimental when combined with the '-z' ('--null-data') option, and note that 'grep -P' may warn of unimplemented features. *Note Other Options::. In addition, two variant programs 'egrep' and 'fgrep' are available. 'egrep' is the same as 'grep -E'. 'fgrep' is the same as 'grep -F'. Direct invocation as either 'egrep' or 'fgrep' is deprecated, but is provided to allow historical applications that rely on them to run unmodified. File: grep.info, Node: Regular Expressions, Next: Usage, Prev: Invoking, Up: Top 3 Regular Expressions ********************* A "regular expression" is a pattern that describes a set of strings. Regular expressions are constructed analogously to arithmetic expressions, by using various operators to combine smaller expressions. 'grep' understands three different versions of regular expression syntax: basic (BRE), extended (ERE), and Perl-compatible (PCRE). In GNU 'grep', there is no difference in available functionality between the basic and extended syntaxes. In other implementations, basic regular expressions are less powerful. The following description applies to extended regular expressions; differences for basic regular expressions are summarized afterwards. Perl-compatible regular expressions give additional functionality, and are documented in the pcresyntax(3) and pcrepattern(3) manual pages, but work only if PCRE is available in the system. * Menu: * Fundamental Structure:: * Character Classes and Bracket Expressions:: * The Backslash Character and Special Expressions:: * Anchoring:: * Back-references and Subexpressions:: * Basic vs Extended:: * Character Encoding:: * Matching Non-ASCII:: File: grep.info, Node: Fundamental Structure, Next: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions, Up: Regular Expressions 3.1 Fundamental Structure ========================= In regular expressions, the characters '.?*+{|()[\^$' are "special characters" and have uses described below. All other characters are "ordinary characters", and each ordinary character is a regular expression that matches itself. The period '.' matches any single character. It is unspecified whether '.' matches an encoding error. A regular expression may be followed by one of several repetition operators; the operators beginning with '{' are called "interval expressions". '?' The preceding item is optional and is matched at most once. '*' The preceding item is matched zero or more times. '+' The preceding item is matched one or more times. '{N}' The preceding item is matched exactly N times. '{N,}' The preceding item is matched N or more times. '{,M}' The preceding item is matched at most M times. This is a GNU extension. '{N,M}' The preceding item is matched at least N times, but not more than M times. The empty regular expression matches the empty string. Two regular expressions may be concatenated; the resulting regular expression matches any string formed by concatenating two substrings that respectively match the concatenated expressions. Two regular expressions may be joined by the infix operator '|'; the resulting regular expression matches any string matching either alternate expression. Repetition takes precedence over concatenation, which in turn takes precedence over alternation. A whole expression may be enclosed in parentheses to override these precedence rules and form a subexpression. An unmatched ')' matches just itself. File: grep.info, Node: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions, Next: The Backslash Character and Special Expressions, Prev: Fundamental Structure, Up: Regular Expressions 3.2 Character Classes and Bracket Expressions ============================================= A "bracket expression" is a list of characters enclosed by '[' and ']'. It matches any single character in that list. If the first character of the list is the caret '^', then it matches any character *not* in the list, and it is unspecified whether it matches an encoding error. For example, the regular expression '[0123456789]' matches any single digit, whereas '[^()]' matches any single character that is not an opening or closing parenthesis, and might or might not match an encoding error. Within a bracket expression, a "range expression" consists of two characters separated by a hyphen. It matches any single character that sorts between the two characters, inclusive. In the default C locale, the sorting sequence is the native character order; for example, '[a-d]' is equivalent to '[abcd]'. In other locales, the sorting sequence is not specified, and '[a-d]' might be equivalent to '[abcd]' or to '[aBbCcDd]', or it might fail to match any character, or the set of characters that it matches might even be erratic. To obtain the traditional interpretation of bracket expressions, you can use the 'C' locale by setting the 'LC_ALL' environment variable to the value 'C'. Finally, certain named classes of characters are predefined within bracket expressions, as follows. Their interpretation depends on the 'LC_CTYPE' locale; for example, '[[:alnum:]]' means the character class of numbers and letters in the current locale. '[:alnum:]' Alphanumeric characters: '[:alpha:]' and '[:digit:]'; in the 'C' locale and ASCII character encoding, this is the same as '[0-9A-Za-z]'. '[:alpha:]' Alphabetic characters: '[:lower:]' and '[:upper:]'; in the 'C' locale and ASCII character encoding, this is the same as '[A-Za-z]'. '[:blank:]' Blank characters: space and tab. '[:cntrl:]' Control characters. In ASCII, these characters have octal codes 000 through 037, and 177 (DEL). In other character sets, these are the equivalent characters, if any. '[:digit:]' Digits: '0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9'. '[:graph:]' Graphical characters: '[:alnum:]' and '[:punct:]'. '[:lower:]' Lower-case letters; in the 'C' locale and ASCII character encoding, this is 'a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z'. '[:print:]' Printable characters: '[:alnum:]', '[:punct:]', and space. '[:punct:]' Punctuation characters; in the 'C' locale and ASCII character encoding, this is '! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? @ [ \ ] ^ _ ` { | } ~'. '[:space:]' Space characters: in the 'C' locale, this is tab, newline, vertical tab, form feed, carriage return, and space. *Note Usage::, for more discussion of matching newlines. '[:upper:]' Upper-case letters: in the 'C' locale and ASCII character encoding, this is 'A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z'. '[:xdigit:]' Hexadecimal digits: '0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F a b c d e f'. Note that the brackets in these class names are part of the symbolic names, and must be included in addition to the brackets delimiting the bracket expression. If you mistakenly omit the outer brackets, and search for say, '[:upper:]', GNU 'grep' prints a diagnostic and exits with status 2, on the assumption that you did not intend to search for the nominally equivalent regular expression: '[:epru]'. Set the 'POSIXLY_CORRECT' environment variable to disable this feature. Special characters lose their special meaning inside bracket expressions. ']' ends the bracket expression if it's not the first list item. So, if you want to make the ']' character a list item, you must put it first. '[.' represents the open collating symbol. '.]' represents the close collating symbol. '[=' represents the open equivalence class. '=]' represents the close equivalence class. '[:' represents the open character class symbol, and should be followed by a valid character class name. ':]' represents the close character class symbol. '-' represents the range if it's not first or last in a list or the ending point of a range. '^' represents the characters not in the list. If you want to make the '^' character a list item, place it anywhere but first. File: grep.info, Node: The Backslash Character and Special Expressions, Next: Anchoring, Prev: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions, Up: Regular Expressions 3.3 The Backslash Character and Special Expressions =================================================== The '\' character followed by a special character is a regular expression that matches the special character. The '\' character, when followed by certain ordinary characters, takes a special meaning: '\b' Match the empty string at the edge of a word. '\B' Match the empty string provided it's not at the edge of a word. '\<' Match the empty string at the beginning of a word. '\>' Match the empty string at the end of a word. '\w' Match word constituent, it is a synonym for '[_[:alnum:]]'. '\W' Match non-word constituent, it is a synonym for '[^_[:alnum:]]'. '\s' Match whitespace, it is a synonym for '[[:space:]]'. '\S' Match non-whitespace, it is a synonym for '[^[:space:]]'. For example, '\brat\b' matches the separate word 'rat', '\Brat\B' matches 'crate' but not 'furry rat'. File: grep.info, Node: Anchoring, Next: Back-references and Subexpressions, Prev: The Backslash Character and Special Expressions, Up: Regular Expressions 3.4 Anchoring ============= The caret '^' and the dollar sign '$' are special characters that respectively match the empty string at the beginning and end of a line. They are termed "anchors", since they force the match to be "anchored" to beginning or end of a line, respectively. File: grep.info, Node: Back-references and Subexpressions, Next: Basic vs Extended, Prev: Anchoring, Up: Regular Expressions 3.5 Back-references and Subexpressions ====================================== The back-reference '\N', where N is a single nonzero digit, matches the substring previously matched by the Nth parenthesized subexpression of the regular expression. For example, '(a)\1' matches 'aa'. If the parenthesized subexpression does not participate in the match, the back-reference makes the whole match fail; for example, '(a)*\1' fails to match 'a'. If the parenthesized subexpression matches more than one substring, the back-reference refers to the last matched substring; for example, '^(ab*)*\1$' matches 'ababbabb' but not 'ababbab'. When multiple regular expressions are given with '-e' or from a file ('-f FILE'), back-references are local to each expression. *Note Known Bugs::, for some known problems with back-references. File: grep.info, Node: Basic vs Extended, Next: Character Encoding, Prev: Back-references and Subexpressions, Up: Regular Expressions 3.6 Basic vs Extended Regular Expressions ========================================= In basic regular expressions the characters '?', '+', '{', '|', '(', and ')' lose their special meaning; instead use the backslashed versions '\?', '\+', '\{', '\|', '\(', and '\)'. Also, a backslash is needed before an interval expression's closing '}', and an unmatched '\)' is invalid. Portable scripts should avoid the following constructs, as POSIX says they produce undefined results: * Extended regular expressions that use back-references. * Basic regular expressions that use '\?', '\+', or '\|'. * Empty parenthesized regular expressions like '()'. * Empty alternatives (as in, e.g, 'a|'). * Repetition operators that immediately follow empty expressions, unescaped '$', or other repetition operators. * A backslash escaping an ordinary character (e.g., '\S'), unless it is a back-reference. * An unescaped '[' that is not part of a bracket expression. * In extended regular expressions, an unescaped '{' that is not part of an interval expression. Traditional 'egrep' did not support interval expressions and some 'egrep' implementations use '\{' and '\}' instead, so portable scripts should avoid interval expressions in 'grep -E' patterns and should use '[{]' to match a literal '{'. GNU 'grep -E' attempts to support traditional usage by assuming that '{' is not special if it would be the start of an invalid interval expression. For example, the command 'grep -E '{1'' searches for the two-character string '{1' instead of reporting a syntax error in the regular expression. POSIX allows this behavior as an extension, but portable scripts should avoid it. File: grep.info, Node: Character Encoding, Next: Matching Non-ASCII, Prev: Basic vs Extended, Up: Regular Expressions 3.7 Character Encoding ====================== The 'LC_CTYPE' locale specifies the encoding of characters in patterns and data, that is, whether text is encoded in UTF-8, ASCII, or some other encoding. *Note Environment Variables::. In the 'C' or 'POSIX' locale, every character is encoded as a single byte and every byte is a valid character. In more-complex encodings such as UTF-8, a sequence of multiple bytes may be needed to represent a character, and some bytes may be encoding errors that do not contribute to the representation of any character. POSIX does not specify the behavior of 'grep' when patterns or input data contain encoding errors or null characters, so portable scripts should avoid such usage. As an extension to POSIX, GNU 'grep' treats null characters like any other character. However, unless the '-a' ('--binary-files=text') option is used, the presence of null characters in input or of encoding errors in output causes GNU 'grep' to treat the file as binary and suppress details about matches. *Note File and Directory Selection::. Regardless of locale, the 103 characters in the POSIX Portable Character Set (a subset of ASCII) are always encoded as a single byte, and the 128 ASCII characters have their usual single-byte encodings on all but oddball platforms. File: grep.info, Node: Matching Non-ASCII, Prev: Character Encoding, Up: Regular Expressions 3.8 Matching Non-ASCII and Non-printable Characters =================================================== In a regular expression, non-ASCII and non-printable characters other than newline are not special, and represent themselves. For example, in a locale using UTF-8 the command 'grep '?? ??'' (where the white space between '??' and the '??' is a tab character) searches for '??' (Unicode character U+039B GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMBDA), followed by a tab (U+0009 TAB), followed by '??' (U+03C9 GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA). Suppose you want to limit your pattern to only printable characters (or even only printable ASCII characters) to keep your script readable or portable, but you also want to match specific non-ASCII or non-null non-printable characters. If you are using the '-P' ('--perl-regexp') option, PCREs give you several ways to do this. Otherwise, if you are using Bash, the GNU project's shell, you can represent these characters via ANSI-C quoting. For example, the Bash commands 'grep $'??\t??'' and 'grep $'\u039B\t\u03C9'' both search for the same three-character string '?? ??' mentioned earlier. However, because Bash translates ANSI-C quoting before 'grep' sees the pattern, this technique should not be used to match printable ASCII characters; for example, 'grep $'\u005E'' is equivalent to 'grep '^'' and matches any line, not just lines containing the character '^' (U+005E CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT). Since PCREs and ANSI-C quoting are GNU extensions to POSIX, portable shell scripts written in ASCII should use other methods to match specific non-ASCII characters. For example, in a UTF-8 locale the command 'grep "$(printf '\316\233\t\317\211\n')"' is a portable albeit hard-to-read alternative to Bash's 'grep $'??\t??''. However, none of these techniques will let you put a null character directly into a command-line pattern; null characters can appear only in a pattern specified via the '-f' ('--file') option. File: grep.info, Node: Usage, Next: Performance, Prev: Regular Expressions, Up: Top 4 Usage ******* Here is an example command that invokes GNU 'grep': grep -i 'hello.*world' menu.h main.c This lists all lines in the files 'menu.h' and 'main.c' that contain the string 'hello' followed by the string 'world'; this is because '.*' matches zero or more characters within a line. *Note Regular Expressions::. The '-i' option causes 'grep' to ignore case, causing it to match the line 'Hello, world!', which it would not otherwise match. Here is a more complex example, showing the location and contents of any line containing 'f' and ending in '.c', within all files in the current directory whose names start with non-'.', contain 'g', and end in '.h'. The '-n' option outputs line numbers, the '--' argument treats any later arguments as file names not options even if '*g*.h' expands to a file name that starts with '-', and the empty file '/dev/null' causes file names to be output even if only one file name happens to be of the form '*g*.h'. grep -n -- 'f.*\.c$' *g*.h /dev/null Note that the regular expression syntax used in the pattern differs from the globbing syntax that the shell uses to match file names. *Note Invoking::, for more details about how to invoke 'grep'. Here are some common questions and answers about 'grep' usage. 1. How can I list just the names of matching files? grep -l 'main' test-*.c lists names of 'test-*.c' files in the current directory whose contents mention 'main'. 2. How do I search directories recursively? grep -r 'hello' /home/gigi searches for 'hello' in all files under the '/home/gigi' directory. For more control over which files are searched, use 'find' and 'grep'. For example, the following command searches only C files: find /home/gigi -name '*.c' ! -type d \ -exec grep -H 'hello' '{}' + This differs from the command: grep -H 'hello' /home/gigi/*.c which merely looks for 'hello' in non-hidden C files in '/home/gigi' whose names end in '.c'. The 'find' command line above is more similar to the command: grep -r --include='*.c' 'hello' /home/gigi 3. What if a pattern or file has a leading '-'? grep -- '--cut here--' * searches for all lines matching '--cut here--'. Without '--', 'grep' would attempt to parse '--cut here--' as a list of options, and there would be similar problems with any file names beginning with '-'. Alternatively, you can prevent misinterpretation of leading '-' by using '-e' for patterns and leading './' for files: grep -e '--cut here--' ./* 4. Suppose I want to search for a whole word, not a part of a word? grep -w 'hello' test*.log searches only for instances of 'hello' that are entire words; it does not match 'Othello'. For more control, use '\<' and '\>' to match the start and end of words. For example: grep 'hello\>' test*.log searches only for words ending in 'hello', so it matches the word 'Othello'. 5. How do I output context around the matching lines? grep -C 2 'hello' test*.log prints two lines of context around each matching line. 6. How do I force 'grep' to print the name of the file? Append '/dev/null': grep 'eli' /etc/passwd /dev/null gets you: /etc/passwd:eli:x:2098:1000:Eli Smith:/home/eli:/bin/bash Alternatively, use '-H', which is a GNU extension: grep -H 'eli' /etc/passwd 7. Why do people use strange regular expressions on 'ps' output? ps -ef | grep '[c]ron' If the pattern had been written without the square brackets, it would have matched not only the 'ps' output line for 'cron', but also the 'ps' output line for 'grep'. Note that on some platforms, 'ps' limits the output to the width of the screen; 'grep' does not have any limit on the length of a line except the available memory. 8. Why does 'grep' report "Binary file matches"? If 'grep' listed all matching "lines" from a binary file, it would probably generate output that is not useful, and it might even muck up your display. So GNU 'grep' suppresses output from files that appear to be binary files. To force GNU 'grep' to output lines even from files that appear to be binary, use the '-a' or '--binary-files=text' option. To eliminate the "Binary file matches" messages, use the '-I' or '--binary-files=without-match' option, or the '-s' or '--no-messages' option. 9. Why doesn't 'grep -lv' print non-matching file names? 'grep -lv' lists the names of all files containing one or more lines that do not match. To list the names of all files that contain no matching lines, use the '-L' or '--files-without-match' option. 10. I can do "OR" with '|', but what about "AND"? grep 'paul' /etc/motd | grep 'franc,ois' finds all lines that contain both 'paul' and 'franc,ois'. 11. Why does the empty pattern match every input line? The 'grep' command searches for lines that contain strings that match a pattern. Every line contains the empty string, so an empty pattern causes 'grep' to find a match on each line. It is not the only such pattern: '^', '$', and many other patterns cause 'grep' to match every line. To match empty lines, use the pattern '^$'. To match blank lines, use the pattern '^[[:blank:]]*$'. To match no lines at all, use the command 'grep -f /dev/null'. 12. How can I search in both standard input and in files? Use the special file name '-': cat /etc/passwd | grep 'alain' - /etc/motd 13. Why is this back-reference failing? echo 'ba' | grep -E '(a)\1|b\1' This outputs an error message, because the second '\1' has nothing to refer back to, meaning it will never match anything. 14. How can I match across lines? Standard grep cannot do this, as it is fundamentally line-based. Therefore, merely using the '[:space:]' character class does not match newlines in the way you might expect. With the GNU 'grep' option '-z' ('--null-data'), each input and output "line" is null-terminated; *note Other Options::. Thus, you can match newlines in the input, but typically if there is a match the entire input is output, so this usage is often combined with output-suppressing options like '-q', e.g.: printf 'foo\nbar\n' | grep -z -q 'foo[[:space:]]\+bar' If this does not suffice, you can transform the input before giving it to 'grep', or turn to 'awk', 'sed', 'perl', or many other utilities that are designed to operate across lines. 15. What do 'grep', 'fgrep', and 'egrep' stand for? The name 'grep' comes from the way line editing was done on Unix. For example, 'ed' uses the following syntax to print a list of matching lines on the screen: global/regular expression/print g/re/p 'fgrep' stands for Fixed 'grep'; 'egrep' stands for Extended 'grep'. File: grep.info, Node: Performance, Next: Reporting Bugs, Prev: Usage, Up: Top 5 Performance ************* Typically 'grep' is an efficient way to search text. However, it can be quite slow in some cases, and it can search large files where even minor performance tweaking can help significantly. Although the algorithm used by 'grep' is an implementation detail that can change from release to release, understanding its basic strengths and weaknesses can help you improve its performance. The 'grep' command operates partly via a set of automata that are designed for efficiency, and partly via a slower matcher that takes over when the fast matchers run into unusual features like back-references. When feasible, the Boyer-Moore fast string searching algorithm is used to match a single fixed pattern, and the Aho-Corasick algorithm is used to match multiple fixed patterns. Generally speaking 'grep' operates more efficiently in single-byte locales, since it can avoid the special processing needed for multi-byte characters. If your patterns will work just as well that way, setting 'LC_ALL' to a single-byte locale can help performance considerably. Setting 'LC_ALL='C'' can be particularly efficient, as 'grep' is tuned for that locale. Outside the 'C' locale, case-insensitive search, and search for bracket expressions like '[a-z]' and '[[=a=]b]', can be surprisingly inefficient due to difficulties in fast portable access to concepts like multi-character collating elements. A back-reference such as '\1' can hurt performance significantly in some cases, since back-references cannot in general be implemented via a finite state automaton, and instead trigger a backtracking algorithm that can be quite inefficient. For example, although the pattern '^(.*)\1{14}(.*)\2{13}$' matches only lines whose lengths can be written as a sum 15x + 14y for nonnegative integers x and y, the pattern matcher does not perform linear Diophantine analysis and instead backtracks through all possible matching strings, using an algorithm that is exponential in the worst case. On some operating systems that support files with holes--large regions of zeros that are not physically present on secondary storage--'grep' can skip over the holes efficiently without needing to read the zeros. This optimization is not available if the '-a' ('--binary-files=text') option is used (*note File and Directory Selection::), unless the '-z' ('--null-data') option is also used (*note Other Options::). For more about the algorithms used by 'grep' and about related string matching algorithms, see: * Aho AV. Algorithms for finding patterns in strings. In: van Leeuwen J. _Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science_, vol. A. New York: Elsevier; 1990. p. 255-300. This surveys classic string matching algorithms, some of which are used by 'grep'. * Aho AV, Corasick MJ. Efficient string matching: an aid to bibliographic search. _CACM_. 1975;18(6):333-40. <https://dx.doi.org/10.1145/360825.360855>. This introduces the Aho-Corasick algorithm. * Boyer RS, Moore JS. A fast string searching algorithm. _CACM_. 1977;20(10):762-72. <https://dx.doi.org/10.1145/359842.359859>. This introduces the Boyer-Moore algorithm. * Faro S, Lecroq T. The exact online string matching problem: a review of the most recent results. _ACM Comput Surv_. 2013;45(2):13. <https://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2431211.2431212>. This surveys string matching algorithms that might help improve the performance of 'grep' in the future. File: grep.info, Node: Reporting Bugs, Next: Copying, Prev: Performance, Up: Top 6 Reporting bugs **************** Bug reports can be found at the GNU bug report logs for 'grep' (https://debbugs.gnu.org/cgi/pkgreport.cgi?package=grep). If you find a bug not listed there, please email it to <bug-grep AT gnu.org> to create a new bug report. * Menu: * Known Bugs:: File: grep.info, Node: Known Bugs, Up: Reporting Bugs 6.1 Known Bugs ============== Large repetition counts in the '{n,m}' construct may cause 'grep' to use lots of memory. In addition, certain other obscure regular expressions require exponential time and space, and may cause 'grep' to run out of memory. Back-references can greatly slow down matching, as they can generate exponentially many matching possibilities that can consume both time and memory to explore. Also, the POSIX specification for back-references is at times unclear. Furthermore, many regular expression implementations have back-reference bugs that can cause programs to return incorrect answers or even crash, and fixing these bugs has often been low-priority: for example, as of 2021 the GNU C library bug database (https://sourceware.org/bugzilla/) contained back-reference bugs 52, 10844, 11053, 24269 and 25322, with little sign of forthcoming fixes. Luckily, back-references are rarely useful and it should be little trouble to avoid them in practical applications. File: grep.info, Node: Copying, Next: Index, Prev: Reporting Bugs, Up: Top 7 Copying ********* GNU 'grep' is licensed under the GNU GPL, which makes it "free software". The "free" in "free software" refers to liberty, not price. As some GNU project advocates like to point out, think of "free speech" rather than "free beer". In short, you have the right (freedom) to run and change 'grep' and distribute it to other people, and--if you want--charge money for doing either. The important restriction is that you have to grant your recipients the same rights and impose the same restrictions. This general method of licensing software is sometimes called "open source". The GNU project prefers the term "free software" for reasons outlined at <https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html>. This manual is free documentation in the same sense. The documentation license is included below. The license for the program is available with the source code, or at <https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html>. * Menu: * GNU Free Documentation License:: File: grep.info, Node: GNU Free Documentation License, Up: Copying 7.1 GNU Free Documentation License ================================== Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 Copyright (C) 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. <https://fsf.org/> Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference. 1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. 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For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein. L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles. M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version. N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. 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AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document. If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate. 8. TRANSLATION Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMINATION You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation. Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice. Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does not give you any rights to use it. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See <https://www.gnu.org/licenses/>. Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License can be used, that proxy's public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document. 11. RELICENSING "Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site" (or "MMC Site") means any World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A "Massive Multiauthor Collaboration" (or "MMC") contained in the site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site. "CC-BY-SA" means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license published by that same organization. "Incorporate" means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part of another Document. An MMC is "eligible for relicensing" if it is licensed under this License, and if all works that were first published under this License somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008. The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents ==================================================== To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page: Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''. If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line with this: with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST. If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software. File: grep.info, Node: Index, Prev: Copying, Up: Top Index ***** * Menu: * *: Fundamental Structure. (line 22) * +: Fundamental Structure. (line 25) * --: Other Options. (line 7) * --after-context: Context Line Control. (line 15) * --basic-regexp: grep Programs. (line 15) * --before-context: Context Line Control. (line 19) * --binary: Other Options. (line 22) * --binary-files: File and Directory Selection. (line 12) * --byte-offset: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 12) * --color: General Output Control. (line 14) * --colour: General Output Control. (line 14) * --context: Context Line Control. (line 24) * --count: General Output Control. (line 8) * --dereference-recursive: File and Directory Selection. (line 113) * --devices: File and Directory Selection. (line 51) * --directories: File and Directory Selection. (line 62) * --exclude: File and Directory Selection. (line 73) * --exclude-dir: File and Directory Selection. (line 87) * --exclude-from: File and Directory Selection. (line 83) * --extended-regexp: grep Programs. (line 20) * --file: Matching Control. (line 17) * --files-with-matches: General Output Control. (line 34) * --files-without-match: General Output Control. (line 29) * --fixed-strings: grep Programs. (line 25) * --group-separator: Context Line Control. (line 27) * --group-separator <1>: Context Line Control. (line 31) * --help: Generic Program Information. (line 7) * --ignore-case: Matching Control. (line 26) * --include: File and Directory Selection. (line 97) * --initial-tab: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 41) * --invert-match: Matching Control. (line 51) * --label: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 28) * --line-buffered: Other Options. (line 13) * --line-number: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 36) * --line-regexp: Matching Control. (line 73) * --max-count: General Output Control. (line 40) * --no-filename: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 23) * --no-ignore-case: Matching Control. (line 44) * --no-messages: General Output Control. (line 85) * --null: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 50) * --null-data: Other Options. (line 43) * --only-matching: General Output Control. (line 70) * --perl-regexp: grep Programs. (line 30) * --quiet: General Output Control. (line 78) * --recursive: File and Directory Selection. (line 105) * --regexp=PATTERNS: Matching Control. (line 8) * --silent: General Output Control. (line 78) * --text: File and Directory Selection. (line 8) * --version: Generic Program Information. (line 12) * --with-filename: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 18) * --word-regexp: Matching Control. (line 56) * -A: Context Line Control. (line 15) * -a: File and Directory Selection. (line 8) * -b: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 12) * -B: Context Line Control. (line 19) * -c: General Output Control. (line 8) * -C: Context Line Control. (line 24) * -D: File and Directory Selection. (line 51) * -d: File and Directory Selection. (line 62) * -e: Matching Control. (line 8) * -E: grep Programs. (line 20) * -f: Matching Control. (line 17) * -F: grep Programs. (line 25) * -G: grep Programs. (line 15) * -H: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 18) * -h: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 23) * -i: Matching Control. (line 26) * -L: General Output Control. (line 29) * -l: General Output Control. (line 34) * -m: General Output Control. (line 40) * -n: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 36) * -NUM: Context Line Control. (line 24) * -o: General Output Control. (line 70) * -P: grep Programs. (line 30) * -q: General Output Control. (line 78) * -r: File and Directory Selection. (line 105) * -R: File and Directory Selection. (line 113) * -s: General Output Control. (line 85) * -T: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 41) * -U: Other Options. (line 22) * -V: Generic Program Information. (line 12) * -v: Matching Control. (line 51) * -w: Matching Control. (line 56) * -x: Matching Control. (line 73) * -y: Matching Control. (line 26) * -Z: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 50) * -z: Other Options. (line 43) * .: Fundamental Structure. (line 11) * ?: Fundamental Structure. (line 19) * _N_GNU_nonoption_argv_flags_ environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 178) * {,M}: Fundamental Structure. (line 34) * {N,M}: Fundamental Structure. (line 38) * {N,}: Fundamental Structure. (line 31) * {N}: Fundamental Structure. (line 28) * after context: Context Line Control. (line 15) * alnum character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 31) * alpha character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 36) * alphabetic characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 36) * alphanumeric characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 31) * anchoring: Anchoring. (line 6) * asterisk: Fundamental Structure. (line 22) * back-reference: Back-references and Subexpressions. (line 6) * back-references: Performance. (line 32) * backslash: The Backslash Character and Special Expressions. (line 6) * basic regular expressions: Basic vs Extended. (line 6) * before context: Context Line Control. (line 19) * binary files: File and Directory Selection. (line 8) * binary files <1>: File and Directory Selection. (line 12) * binary I/O: Other Options. (line 22) * blank character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 41) * blank characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 41) * bn GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 121) * braces, first argument omitted: Fundamental Structure. (line 34) * braces, one argument: Fundamental Structure. (line 28) * braces, second argument omitted: Fundamental Structure. (line 31) * braces, two arguments: Fundamental Structure. (line 38) * bracket expression: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 6) * Bugs, known: Known Bugs. (line 6) * bugs, reporting: Reporting Bugs. (line 6) * byte offset: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 12) * case insensitive search: Matching Control. (line 26) * case insensitive search <1>: Performance. (line 27) * changing name of standard input: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 28) * character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 6) * character classes: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 30) * character encoding: Character Encoding. (line 6) * character type: Environment Variables. (line 148) * classes of characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 30) * cntrl character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 44) * context lines: General Output Control. (line 62) * context lines <1>: Context Line Control. (line 6) * context lines <2>: Context Line Control. (line 24) * context lines, after match: Context Line Control. (line 15) * context lines, before match: Context Line Control. (line 19) * control characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 44) * copying: Copying. (line 6) * counting lines: General Output Control. (line 8) * cx GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 72) * device search: File and Directory Selection. (line 51) * digit character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 49) * digit characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 49) * directory search: File and Directory Selection. (line 62) * dot: Fundamental Structure. (line 11) * encoding error: Environment Variables. (line 155) * environment variables: Environment Variables. (line 44) * exclude directories: File and Directory Selection. (line 87) * exclude files: File and Directory Selection. (line 73) * exclude files <1>: File and Directory Selection. (line 83) * exit status: Exit Status. (line 6) * FAQ about grep usage: Usage. (line 32) * files which don't match: General Output Control. (line 29) * fn GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 111) * fn GREP_COLORS capability <1>: Environment Variables. (line 126) * graph character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 52) * graphic characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 52) * grep programs: grep Programs. (line 6) * GREP_COLOR environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 45) * GREP_COLORS environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 56) * group separator: Context Line Control. (line 27) * group separator <1>: Context Line Control. (line 31) * hexadecimal digits: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 76) * highlight markers: Environment Variables. (line 45) * highlight markers <1>: Environment Variables. (line 56) * highlight, color, colour: General Output Control. (line 14) * holes in files: Performance. (line 42) * include files: File and Directory Selection. (line 97) * interval expressions: Fundamental Structure. (line 14) * interval expressions <1>: Basic vs Extended. (line 27) * invert matching: Matching Control. (line 51) * LANG environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 9) * LANG environment variable <1>: Environment Variables. (line 148) * LANG environment variable <2>: Environment Variables. (line 155) * LANG environment variable <3>: Environment Variables. (line 164) * LANGUAGE environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 9) * LANGUAGE environment variable <1>: Environment Variables. (line 164) * language of messages: Environment Variables. (line 164) * LC_ALL environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 9) * LC_ALL environment variable <1>: Environment Variables. (line 148) * LC_ALL environment variable <2>: Environment Variables. (line 155) * LC_ALL environment variable <3>: Environment Variables. (line 164) * LC_COLLATE environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 148) * LC_CTYPE environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 155) * LC_MESSAGES environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 9) * LC_MESSAGES environment variable <1>: Environment Variables. (line 164) * line buffering: Other Options. (line 13) * line numbering: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 36) * ln GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 116) * locales: Performance. (line 20) * lower character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 55) * lower-case letters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 55) * match expression at most M times: Fundamental Structure. (line 34) * match expression at most once: Fundamental Structure. (line 19) * match expression from N to M times: Fundamental Structure. (line 38) * match expression N or more times: Fundamental Structure. (line 31) * match expression N times: Fundamental Structure. (line 28) * match expression one or more times: Fundamental Structure. (line 25) * match expression zero or more times: Fundamental Structure. (line 22) * match the whole line: Matching Control. (line 73) * matching basic regular expressions: grep Programs. (line 15) * matching extended regular expressions: grep Programs. (line 20) * matching fixed strings: grep Programs. (line 25) * matching Perl-compatible regular expressions: grep Programs. (line 30) * matching whole words: Matching Control. (line 56) * max-count: General Output Control. (line 40) * mc GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 103) * message language: Environment Variables. (line 164) * ms GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 95) * MS-Windows binary I/O: Other Options. (line 22) * mt GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 87) * names of matching files: General Output Control. (line 34) * national language support: Environment Variables. (line 148) * national language support <1>: Environment Variables. (line 164) * ne GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 133) * NLS: Environment Variables. (line 148) * no filename prefix: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 23) * non-ASCII matching: Matching Non-ASCII. (line 6) * non-printable matching: Matching Non-ASCII. (line 6) * null character: Environment Variables. (line 155) * numeric characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 49) * only matching: General Output Control. (line 70) * option delimiter: Other Options. (line 7) * ordinary characters: Fundamental Structure. (line 6) * patterns from file: Matching Control. (line 17) * patterns option: Matching Control. (line 8) * performance: Performance. (line 6) * period: Fundamental Structure. (line 11) * plus sign: Fundamental Structure. (line 25) * POSIXLY_CORRECT environment variable: Environment Variables. (line 169) * print character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 59) * print non-matching lines: Matching Control. (line 51) * printable characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 59) * punct character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 62) * punctuation characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 62) * question mark: Fundamental Structure. (line 19) * quiet, silent: General Output Control. (line 78) * range expression: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 14) * recursive search: File and Directory Selection. (line 105) * recursive search <1>: File and Directory Selection. (line 113) * regular expressions: Regular Expressions. (line 6) * return status: Exit Status. (line 6) * rv GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 81) * searching directory trees: File and Directory Selection. (line 73) * searching directory trees <1>: File and Directory Selection. (line 83) * searching directory trees <2>: File and Directory Selection. (line 97) * searching directory trees <3>: File and Directory Selection. (line 105) * searching directory trees <4>: File and Directory Selection. (line 113) * searching for patterns: Introduction. (line 6) * sl GREP_COLORS capability: Environment Variables. (line 64) * space character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 67) * space characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 67) * special characters: Fundamental Structure. (line 6) * subexpression: Back-references and Subexpressions. (line 6) * suppress binary data: File and Directory Selection. (line 8) * suppress error messages: General Output Control. (line 85) * symbolic links: File and Directory Selection. (line 62) * symbolic links <1>: File and Directory Selection. (line 105) * symbolic links <2>: File and Directory Selection. (line 113) * tab-aligned content lines: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 41) * translation of message language: Environment Variables. (line 164) * upper character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 72) * upper-case letters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 72) * usage summary, printing: Generic Program Information. (line 7) * usage, examples: Usage. (line 6) * using grep, Q&A: Usage. (line 32) * variants of grep: grep Programs. (line 6) * version, printing: Generic Program Information. (line 12) * whitespace characters: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 67) * with filename prefix: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 18) * xdigit character class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 76) * xdigit class: Character Classes and Bracket Expressions. (line 76) * zero-terminated file names: Output Line Prefix Control. (line 50) * zero-terminated lines: Other Options. (line 43)
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