ed - phpMan

File: ed.info, Node: Top, Next: Overview, Up: (dir)

The GNU ed line editor
**********************

This manual is for GNU ed (version 1.18, 4 February 2022).

* Menu:

* Overview:: Overview of the 'ed' command
* Introduction to line editing:: Getting started with GNU 'ed'
* Invoking ed:: Command line interface
* Line addressing:: Specifying lines/ranges in the buffer
* Regular expressions:: Patterns for selecting text
* Commands:: Commands recognized by GNU 'ed'
* The 's' Command:: Substitute command
* Limitations:: Intrinsic limits of GNU 'ed'
* Diagnostics:: GNU 'ed' error handling
* Problems:: Reporting bugs
* GNU Free Documentation License:: How you can copy and share this manual

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any
later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.

File: ed.info, Node: Overview, Next: Introduction to line editing, Prev: Top, Up: Top

1 Overview
**********

GNU ed is a line-oriented text editor. It is used to create, display, modify
and otherwise manipulate text files, both interactively and via shell
scripts. A restricted version of ed, red, can only edit files in the current
directory and cannot execute shell commands. Ed is the 'standard' text
editor in the sense that it is the original editor for Unix, and thus widely
available. For most purposes, however, it is superseded by full-screen
editors such as GNU Emacs or GNU Moe.

GNU ed is based on the editor algorithm described in Brian W. Kernighan
and P. J. Plauger's book "Software Tools in Pascal", Addison-Wesley, 1981.

If invoked with a FILE argument, then a copy of FILE is read into the
editor's buffer. Changes are made to this copy and not directly to FILE
itself. Upon quitting 'ed', any changes not explicitly saved with a 'w'
command are lost. In interactive mode, a non-existing FILE is reported but
does not alter the exit status.

Editing is done in two distinct modes: "command" and "input". When first
invoked, 'ed' is in command mode. In this mode commands are read from the
standard input and executed to manipulate the contents of the editor
buffer. A typical command might look like:

,s/OLD/NEW/g

which replaces all occurences of the string OLD with NEW.

When an input command, such as 'a' (append), 'i' (insert) or 'c'
(change), is given, 'ed' enters input mode. This is the primary means of
adding text to a file. In this mode, no commands are available; instead,
the standard input is written directly to the editor buffer. A "line"
consists of the text up to and including a <newline> character. Input mode
is terminated by entering a single period ('.') on a line.

All 'ed' commands operate on whole lines or ranges of lines; e.g., the
'd' command deletes lines; the 'm' command moves lines, and so on. It is
possible to modify only a portion of a line by means of replacement, as in
the example above. However even here, the 's' command is applied to whole
lines at a time.

In general, 'ed' commands consist of zero or more line addresses,
followed by a single character command and possibly additional parameters;
i.e., commands have the structure:

[ADDRESS[,ADDRESS]]COMMAND[PARAMETERS]

The ADDRESSes indicate the line or range of lines to be affected by the
command. If fewer addresses are given than the command accepts, then
default addresses are supplied.

File: ed.info, Node: Introduction to line editing, Next: Invoking ed, Prev: Overview, Up: Top

2 Introduction to line editing
******************************

'ed' was created, along with the Unix operating system, by Ken Thompson and
Dennis Ritchie. It is the refinement of its more complex, programmable
predecessor, 'QED', to which Thompson and Ritchie had already added pattern
matching capabilities (*note Regular expressions::).

For the purposes of this tutorial, a working knowledge of the Unix shell
'sh' and the Unix file system is recommended, since 'ed' is designed to
interact closely with them. (*Note GNU bash manual: (bash)Top, for details
about bash).

The principal difference between line editors and display editors is
that display editors provide instant feedback to user commands, whereas
line editors require sometimes lengthy input before any effects are seen.
The advantage of instant feedback, of course, is that if a mistake is made,
it can be corrected immediately, before more damage is done. Editing in
'ed' requires more strategy and forethought; but if you are up to the task,
it can be quite efficient.

Much of the 'ed' command syntax is shared with other Unix utilities.

As with the shell, <RETURN> (the carriage-return key) enters a line of
input. So when we speak of "entering" a command or some text in 'ed',
<RETURN> is implied at the end of each line. Prior to typing <RETURN>,
corrections to the line may be made by typing either <BACKSPACE> to erase
characters backwards, or <CONTROL>-u (i.e., hold the CONTROL key and type
u) to erase the whole line.

When 'ed' first opens, it expects to be told what to do but doesn't
prompt us like the shell. So let's begin by telling 'ed' to do so with the
<P> ("prompt") command:

$ ed
P
*

By default, 'ed' uses asterisk ('*') as command prompt to avoid
confusion with the shell command prompt ('$').

We can run Unix shell ('sh') commands from inside 'ed' by prefixing them
with <!> (exclamation mark, aka "bang"). For example:

*!date
Mon Jun 26 10:08:41 PDT 2006
!
*!for s in hello world; do echo $s; done
hello
world
!
*

So far, this is no different from running commands in the Unix shell.
But let's say we want to edit the output of a command, or save it to a
file. First we must capture the command output to a temporary location
called a "buffer" where 'ed' can access it. This is done with 'ed''s <r>
command (mnemonic: "read"):

*r !cal -m
137
*

Here 'ed' is telling us that it has just read 137 characters into the
editor buffer - i.e., the output of the 'cal' command, which prints a
simple ASCII calendar. To display the buffer contents we issue the <p>
("print") command (not to be confused with the prompt command, which is
uppercase!). To indicate the range of lines in the buffer that should be
printed, we prefix the command with <,> (comma) which is shorthand for "the
whole buffer":

*,p
June 2006
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30

Now let's write the buffer contents to a file named 'junk' with the <w>
("write") command:

*w junk
137
*

Need we say? It's good practice to frequently write the buffer contents,
since unwritten changes to the buffer will be lost when we exit 'ed'.

The sample sessions below illustrate some basic concepts of line editing
with 'ed'. We begin by creating a file, 'sonnet', with some help from
Shakespeare. As with the shell, all input to 'ed' must be followed by a
<newline> character. Commands beginning with '#' are taken as comments and
ignored. Input mode lines that begin with '#' are just more input.

$ ed
# The 'a' command is for appending text to the editor buffer.
a
No more be grieved at that which thou hast done.
Roses have thorns, and filvers foutians mud.
Clouds and eclipses stain both moon and sun,
And loathsome canker lives in sweetest bud.
.
# Entering a single period on a line returns 'ed' to command mode.
# Now write the buffer to the file 'sonnet' and quit:
w sonnet
183
# 'ed' reports the number of characters written.
q
$ ls -l
total 2
-rw-rw-r-- 1 alm 183 Nov 10 01:16 sonnet
$

In the next example, some typos are corrected in the file 'sonnet'.

$ ed sonnet
183
# Begin by printing the buffer to the terminal with the 'p' command.
# The ',' means "all lines".
,p
No more be grieved at that which thou hast done.
Roses have thorns, and filvers foutians mud.
Clouds and eclipses stain both moon and sun,
And loathsome canker lives in sweetest bud.
# Select line 2 for editing.
2
Roses have thorns, and filvers foutians mud.
# Use the substitute command, 's', to replace 'filvers' with 'silver',
# and print the result.
s/filvers/silver/p
Roses have thorns, and silver foutians mud.
# And correct the spelling of 'fountains'.
s/utia/untai/p
Roses have thorns, and silver fountains mud.
w sonnet
183
q
$

Since 'ed' is line-oriented, we have to tell it which line, or range of
lines we want to edit. In the example above, we do this by specifying the
line's number, or sequence in the buffer. Alternatively, we could have
specified a unique string in the line, e.g., '/filvers/', where the '/'s
delimit the string in question. Subsequent commands affect only the
selected line, a.k.a. the "current" line. Portions of that line are then
replaced with the substitute command, whose syntax is 's/OLD/NEW/'.

Although 'ed' accepts only one command per line, the print command 'p'
is an exception, and may be appended to the end of most commands.

In the next example, a title is added to our sonnet.

$ ed sonnet
183
a
Sonnet #50
.
,p
No more be grieved at that which thou hast done.
Roses have thorns, and silver fountains mud.
Clouds and eclipses stain both moon and sun,
And loathsome canker lives in sweetest bud.
Sonnet #50
# The title got appended to the end; we should have used '0a'
# to append "before the first line".
# Move the title to its proper place.
5m0p
Sonnet #50
# The title is now the first line, and the current address has been
# set to the address of this line as well.
,p
Sonnet #50
No more be grieved at that which thou hast done.
Roses have thorns, and silver fountains mud.
Clouds and eclipses stain both moon and sun,
And loathsome canker lives in sweetest bud.
wq sonnet
195
$

When 'ed' opens a file, the current address is initially set to the
address of the last line of that file. Similarly, the move command 'm' sets
the current address to the address of the last line moved.

Related programs or routines are 'vi (1)', 'sed (1)', 'regex (3)', 'sh
(1)'. Relevant documents are:

Unix User's Manual Supplementary Documents: 12 -- 13

B. W. Kernighan and P. J. Plauger: "Software Tools in Pascal",
Addison-Wesley, 1981.

File: ed.info, Node: Invoking ed, Next: Line addressing, Prev: Introduction to line editing, Up: Top

3 Invoking ed
*************

The format for running 'ed' is:

ed [OPTIONS] [FILE]
red [OPTIONS] [FILE]

FILE specifies the name of a file to read. If FILE is prefixed with a
bang (!), then it is interpreted as a shell command. In this case, what is
read is the standard output of FILE executed via 'sh (1)'. To read a file
whose name begins with a bang, prefix the name with a backslash ('\'). The
default filename is set to FILE only if it is not prefixed with a bang.

'ed' supports the following options: *Note Argument syntax:
(arg_parser)Argument syntax.

'-h'
'--help'
Print an informative help message describing the options and exit.

'-V'
'--version'
Print the version number of 'ed' on the standard output and exit. This
version number should be included in all bug reports.

'-E'
'--extended-regexp'
Use extended regular expressions instead of the basic regular
expressions mandated by POSIX.

'-G'
'--traditional'
Forces backwards compatibility. This affects the behavior of the 'ed'
commands 'G', 'V', 'f', 'l', 'm', 't' and '!!'. If the default
behavior of these commands does not seem familiar, then try invoking
'ed' with this switch.

'-l'
'--loose-exit-status'
Don't exit with bad status if a command happens to "fail" (for example
if a substitution command finds nothing to replace). This can be useful
when 'ed' is invoked as the editor for crontab.

'-p STRING'
'--prompt=STRING'
Specifies a command prompt string and turns prompting on. Showing the
prompt string may be toggled on and off with the 'P' command.

'-r'
'--restricted'
Run in restricted mode. This mode disables editing of files out of the
current directory and execution of shell commands.

'-s'
'--quiet'
'--silent'
Suppresses diagnostics, the printing of byte counts by 'e', 'E', 'r'
and 'w' commands, and the '!' prompt after a '!' command. This option
may be useful if 'ed''s standard input is from a script.

'-v'
'--verbose'
Verbose mode; prints error explanations. This may be toggled on and off
with the 'H' command.

'--strip-trailing-cr'
Strip the carriage returns at the end of text lines in DOS files. CRs
are removed only from the CR/LF (carriage return/line feed) pair
ending the line. CRs at other positions in the line, including a CR
finishing an unterminated line, are not removed. The CRs are not
restored when saving the buffer to a file.

Exit status: 0 if no errors occurred; otherwise >0.

File: ed.info, Node: Line addressing, Next: Regular expressions, Prev: Invoking ed, Up: Top

4 Line addressing
*****************

An address represents the number of a line in the buffer. 'ed' maintains a
"current address" which is typically supplied to commands as the default
address when none is specified. When a file is first read, the current
address is set to the address of the last line of the file. In general, the
current address is set to the address of the last line affected by a
command.

One exception to the rule that addresses represent line numbers is the
address '0' (zero). This means "at the beginning of the buffer", and is
valid wherever it makes sense.

An address range is two addresses separated either by a comma (',') or a
semicolon (';'). In a semicolon-delimited range, the current address ('.')
is set to the first address before the second address is calculated. This
feature can be used to set the starting line for searches if the second
address contains a regular expression. The value of the first address in a
range cannot exceed the value of the second.

Addresses can be omitted on either side of the comma or semicolon
separator. If only the first address is given in a range, then the second
address is set to the given address. If only the second address is given,
the resulting address pairs are '1,addr' and '.;addr' respectively. If a
N-tuple of addresses is given where N > 2, then the corresponding range is
determined by the last two addresses in the N-tuple. If only one address is
expected, then the last address is used. It is an error to give any number
of addresses to a command that requires zero addresses.

A line address is constructed as follows:

'.'
The current line (address) in the buffer.

'$'
The last line in the buffer.

'N'
The Nth line in the buffer, where N is a number in the range '0,$'.

'+N'
The Nth next line, where N is a non-negative number.

'-N'
The Nth previous line, where N is a non-negative number.

'+'
The next line. This is equivalent to '+1' and may be repeated with
cumulative effect.

'-'
The previous line. This is equivalent to '-1' and may be repeated with
cumulative effect.

','
The first through last lines in the buffer. This is equivalent to the
address range '1,$'.

';'
The current through last lines in the buffer. This is equivalent to the
address range '.;$'.

'/RE/[I]'
The next line containing the regular expression RE. The search wraps
to the beginning of the buffer and continues down to the current line,
if necessary. The suffix 'I' is a GNU extension which makes 'ed' match
RE in a case-insensitive manner.

'?RE?[I]'
The previous line containing the regular expression RE. The search
wraps to the end of the buffer and continues up to the current line, if
necessary. The suffix 'I' is a GNU extension which makes 'ed' match RE
in a case-insensitive manner.

''x'
The apostrophe-x character pair addresses the line previously marked by
a 'k' (mark) command, where 'x' is a lower case letter from the
portable character set '[a-z]'.

Addresses can be followed by one or more address offsets, optionally
separated by whitespace. Offsets are constructed as follows:

* '+' or '-' followed by a number adds or subtracts the indicated number
of lines to or from the address.

* '+' or '-' not followed by a number adds or subtracts 1 to or from the
address.

* A number adds the indicated number of lines to the address.

It is not an error if an intermediate address value is negative or
greater than the address of the last line in the buffer. It is an error if
the final address value is negative or greater than the address of the last
line in the buffer. It is an error if a search for a regular expression
fails to find a matching line.

File: ed.info, Node: Regular expressions, Next: Commands, Prev: Line addressing, Up: Top

5 Regular expressions
*********************

Regular expressions are patterns used in selecting text. For example, the
'ed' command

g/STRING/

prints all lines containing STRING. Regular expressions are also used by
the 's' command for selecting old text to be replaced with new text.

In addition to specifying string literals, regular expressions can
represent classes of strings. Strings thus represented are said to be
matched by the corresponding regular expression. If it is possible for a
regular expression to match several strings in a line, then the left-most
match is the one selected. If the regular expression permits a variable
number of matching characters, the longest sequence starting at that point
is matched.

An empty regular expression is equivalent to the last regular expression
processed. Therefore '/RE/s//REPLACEMENT/' replaces RE with REPLACEMENT.

As a GNU extension, a regular expression /RE/ may be followed by the
suffix 'I' which makes 'ed' match RE in a case-insensitive manner. Note
that the suffix is evaluated when the regular expression is compiled, thus
it is invalid to specify it together with the empty regular expression.

The following symbols are used in constructing regular expressions using
POSIX basic regular expression syntax:

'C'
Any character C not listed below, including '{', '}', '(', ')', '<'
and '>', matches itself.

'\C'
Any backslash-escaped character C, other than '{', '}', '(', ')', '<',
'>', 'b', 'B', 'w', 'W', '+' and '?', matches itself.

'.'
Matches any single character.

'[CHAR-CLASS]'
Matches any single character in CHAR-CLASS. To include a ']' in
CHAR-CLASS, it must be the first character. A range of characters may
be specified by separating the end characters of the range with a '-',
e.g., 'a-z' specifies the lower case characters. The following literal
expressions can also be used in CHAR-CLASS to specify sets of
characters:

[:alnum:] [:cntrl:] [:lower:] [:space:]
[:alpha:] [:digit:] [:print:] [:upper:]
[:blank:] [:graph:] [:punct:] [:xdigit:]

If '-' appears as the first or last character of CHAR-CLASS, then it
matches itself. All other characters in CHAR-CLASS match themselves.

Patterns in CHAR-CLASS of the form:
[.COL-ELM.]
[=COL-ELM=]

where COL-ELM is a "collating element" are interpreted according to
'locale (5)'. See 'regex (7)' for an explanation of these constructs.

'[^CHAR-CLASS]'
Matches any single character, other than newline, not in CHAR-CLASS.
CHAR-CLASS is defined as above.

'^'
If '^' is the first character of a regular expression, then it anchors
the regular expression to the beginning of a line. Otherwise, it
matches itself.

'$'
If '$' is the last character of a regular expression, it anchors the
regular expression to the end of a line. Otherwise, it matches itself.

'$RE$'
Defines a (possibly empty) subexpression RE. Subexpressions may be
nested. A subsequent backreference of the form '\N', where N is a
number in the range [1,9], expands to the text matched by the Nth
subexpression. For example, the regular expression '$a.c$\1' matches
the string 'abcabc', but not 'abcadc'. Subexpressions are ordered
relative to their left delimiter.

'*'
Matches zero or more repetitions of the regular expression immediately
preceding it. The regular expression can be either a single character
regular expression or a subexpression. If '*' is the first character
of a regular expression or subexpression, then it matches itself. The
'*' operator sometimes yields unexpected results. For example, the
regular expression 'b*' matches the beginning of the string 'abbb', as
opposed to the substring 'bbb', since an empty string is the only
left-most match.

'\{N,M\}'
'\{N,\}'
'\{N\}'
Matches the single character regular expression or subexpression
immediately preceding it at least N and at most M times. If M is
omitted, then it matches at least N times. If the comma is also
omitted, then it matches exactly N times. If any of these forms occurs
first in a regular expression or subexpression, then it is interpreted
literally (i.e., the regular expression '\{2\}' matches the string
'{2}', and so on).

The following extensions to basic regular expression operators are
preceded by a backslash '\' to distinguish them from traditional 'ed'
syntax. They may be unavailable depending on the particular regex
implementation in your system.

'\<'
'\>'
Anchors the single character regular expression or subexpression
immediately following it to the beginning (in the case of '\<') or
ending (in the case of '\>') of a "word", i.e., in ASCII, a maximal
string of alphanumeric characters, including the underscore (_).

'\`'
'\''
Unconditionally matches the beginning '\`' or ending '\'' of a line.

'\?'
Optionally matches the single character regular expression or
subexpression immediately preceding it. For example, the regular
expression 'a[bd]\?c' matches the strings 'abc', 'adc' and 'ac'. If
'\?' occurs at the beginning of a regular expressions or
subexpression, then it matches a literal '?'.

'\+'
Matches the single character regular expression or subexpression
immediately preceding it one or more times. So the regular expression
'a\+' is shorthand for 'aa*'. If '\+' occurs at the beginning of a
regular expression or subexpression, then it matches a literal '+'.

'\b'
Matches the beginning or ending (empty string) of a word. Thus the
regular expression '\bhello\b' is equivalent to '\<hello\>'. However,
'\b\b' is a valid regular expression whereas '\<\>' is not.

'\B'
Matches (an empty string) inside a word.

'\w'
Matches any word-constituent character (letters, digits, and the
underscore).

'\W'
Matches any character that is not a word-constituent.

File: ed.info, Node: Commands, Next: The 's' Command, Prev: Regular expressions, Up: Top

6 Commands
**********

All 'ed' commands are single characters, though some require additional
parameters. If a command's parameters extend over several lines, then each
line except for the last must be terminated with a backslash ('\').

In general, at most one command is allowed per line. However, most
commands accept a print suffix, which is any of 'p' (print), 'l' (list), or
'n' (enumerate), to print the last line affected by the command. It is not
portable to give more than one print suffix, but 'ed' allows any
combination of non-repeated print suffixes and combines their effects. If
any suffix letter is given, it must immediately follow the command.

The 'e', 'E', 'f', 'r', and 'w' commands take an optional FILE
parameter, separated from the command letter by one or more whitespace
characters.

An interrupt (typically <Control-C>) has the effect of aborting the
current command and returning the editor to command mode.

'ed' recognizes the following commands. The commands are shown together
with the default address or address range supplied if none is specified (in
parenthesis).

'(.)a'
Appends text to the buffer after the addressed line. The address '0'
(zero) is valid for this command; it places the entered text at the
beginning of the buffer. Text is entered in input mode. The current
address is set to the address of the last line entered or, if there
were none, to the addressed line.

'(.,.)c'
Changes lines in the buffer. The addressed lines are deleted from the
buffer, and text is inserted in their place. Text is entered in input
mode. The current address is set to the address of the last line
entered or, if there were none, to the new address of the line after
the last line deleted; if the lines deleted were originally at the end
of the buffer, the current address is set to the address of the new
last line; if no lines remain in the buffer, the current address is
set to zero. The lines deleted are copied to the cut buffer.

'(.,.)d'
Deletes the addressed lines from the buffer. The current address is
set to the new address of the line after the last line deleted; if the
lines deleted were originally at the end of the buffer, the current
address is set to the address of the new last line; if no lines remain
in the buffer, the current address is set to zero. The lines deleted
are copied to the cut buffer.

'e FILE'
Edits FILE, and sets the default filename. If FILE is not specified,
then the default filename is used. Any lines in the buffer are deleted
before the new file is read. The current address is set to the address
of the last line in the buffer.

If FILE is prefixed with a bang (!), then it is interpreted as a shell
command whose output is to be read, (*note shell escape command:: '!'
below). In this case the default filename is unchanged.

A warning is printed if any changes have been made in the buffer since
the last 'w' command that wrote the entire buffer to a file.

'E FILE'
Edits FILE unconditionally. This is similar to the 'e' command, except
that unwritten changes are discarded without warning.

'f FILE'
Sets the default filename to FILE. If FILE is not specified, then the
default unescaped filename is printed.

'(1,$)g/RE/[I]COMMAND-LIST'
Global command. The global command makes two passes over the file. On
the first pass, all the addressed lines matching a regular expression
RE are marked. The suffix 'I' is a GNU extension which makes 'ed'
match RE in a case-insensitive manner. Then, going sequentially from
the beginning of the file to the end of the file, the given
COMMAND-LIST is executed for each marked line, with the current
address set to the address of that line. Any line modified by the
COMMAND-LIST is unmarked. The final value of the current address is
the value assigned by the last command in the last COMMAND-LIST
executed. If there were no matching lines, the current address is
unchanged. The execution of COMMAND-LIST stops on the first error.

The first command of COMMAND-LIST must appear on the same line as the
'g' command. The other commands of COMMAND-LIST must appear on
separate lines. All lines of a multi-line COMMAND-LIST except the last
line must be terminated with a backslash ('\'). Any commands are
allowed, except for 'g', 'G', 'v', and 'V'. The '.' terminating the
input mode of commands 'a', 'c', and 'i' can be omitted if it would be
the last line of COMMAND-LIST. By default, a newline alone in
COMMAND-LIST is equivalent to a 'p' command. If 'ed' is invoked with
the command-line option '-G', then a newline in COMMAND-LIST is
equivalent to a '.+1p' command.

'(1,$)G/RE/[I]'
Interactive global command. Interactively edits the addressed lines
matching a regular expression RE. The suffix 'I' is a GNU extension
which makes 'ed' match RE in a case-insensitive manner. For each
matching line, the line is printed, the current address is set, and
the user is prompted to enter a COMMAND-LIST. The final value of the
current address is the value assigned by the last command executed. If
there were no matching lines, the current address is unchanged.

The format of COMMAND-LIST is the same as that of the 'g' command. A
newline alone acts as an empty command list. A single '&' repeats the
last non-empty command list.

'h'
Help. Prints an explanation of the last error.

'H'
Toggles the printing of error explanations. By default, explanations
are not printed. It is recommended that ed scripts begin with this
command to aid in debugging.

'(.)i'
Inserts text in the buffer before the addressed line. The address '0'
(zero) is valid for this command; it places the entered text at the
beginning of the buffer. Text is entered in input mode. The current
address is set to the address of the last line entered or, if there
were none, to the addressed line.

'(.,.+1)j'
Joins the addressed lines, replacing them by a single line containing
their joined text. If only one address is given, this command does
nothing. If lines are joined, the lines replaced are copied to the cut
buffer and the current address is set to the address of the joined
line. Else, the current address is unchanged.

'(.)kx'
Marks a line with a lower case letter 'x'. The line can then be
addressed as ''x' (i.e., a single quote followed by 'x') in subsequent
commands. The mark is not cleared until the line is deleted or
otherwise modified. The current address is unchanged.

'(.,.)l'
List command. Prints the addressed lines unambiguously. The end of each
line is marked with a '$', and every '$' character within the text is
printed with a preceding backslash. Special characters are printed as
escape sequences. The current address is set to the address of the
last line printed.

'(.,.)m(.)'
Moves lines in the buffer. The addressed lines are moved to after the
right-hand destination address. The destination address '0' (zero) is
valid for this command; it moves the addressed lines to the beginning
of the buffer. It is an error if the destination address falls within
the range of lines to be moved. The current address is set to the new
address of the last line moved.

'(.,.)n'
Number command. Prints the addressed lines, preceding each line by its
line number and a <tab>. The current address is set to the address of
the last line printed.

'(.,.)p'
Prints the addressed lines. The current address is set to the address
of the last line printed.

'P'
Toggles the command prompt on and off. Unless a prompt string is
specified with the command-line option '-p', the command prompt is by
default turned off. The default prompt string is an asterisk ('*').

'q'
Quits 'ed'. A warning is printed if any changes have been made in the
buffer since the last 'w' command that wrote the entire buffer to a
file.

'Q'
Quits 'ed' unconditionally. This is similar to the 'q' command, except
that unwritten changes are discarded without warning.

'($)r FILE'
Reads FILE and appends it after the addressed line. If FILE is not
specified, then the default filename is used. If there is no default
filename prior to the command, then the default filename is set to
FILE. Otherwise, the default filename is unchanged. The address '0'
(zero) is valid for this command; it reads the file at the beginning
of the buffer. The current address is set to the address of the last
line read or, if there were none, to the addressed line.

If FILE is prefixed with a bang (!), then it is interpreted as a shell
command whose output is to be read, (*note shell escape command:: '!'
below). In this case the default filename is unchanged.

'(.,.)t(.)'
Copies (i.e., transfers) the addressed lines to after the right-hand
destination address. If the destination address is '0' (zero), the
lines are copied at the beginning of the buffer. The current address is
set to the address of the last line copied.

'u'
Undoes the effect of the last command that modified anything in the
buffer and restores the current address to what it was before the
command. The global commands 'g', 'G', 'v', and 'V' are treated as a
single command by undo. 'u' is its own inverse; it can undo only the
last command.

'(1,$)v/RE/[I]COMMAND-LIST'
This is similar to the 'g' command except that it applies COMMAND-LIST
to each of the addressed lines not matching the regular expression RE.

'(1,$)V/RE/[I]'
This is similar to the 'G' command except that it interactively edits
the addressed lines not matching the regular expression RE.

'(1,$)w FILE'
Writes the addressed lines to FILE. Any previous contents of FILE are
lost without warning. If there is no default filename, then the
default filename is set to FILE, otherwise it is unchanged. If no
filename is specified, then the default filename is used. The current
address is unchanged.

If FILE is prefixed with a bang (!), then it is interpreted as a shell
command and the addressed lines are written to its standard input,
(*note shell escape command:: '!' below). In this case the default
filename is unchanged. Writing the buffer to a shell command does not
prevent the warning to the user if an attempt is made to overwrite or
discard the buffer via the 'e' or 'q' commands.

'(1,$)wq FILE'
Writes the addressed lines to FILE, and then executes a 'q' command.

'(1,$)W FILE'
Appends the addressed lines to the end of FILE. This is similar to the
'w' command, except that the previous contents of FILE are not
clobbered. The current address is unchanged.

'(.)x'
Copies (puts) the contents of the cut buffer to after the addressed
line. The current address is set to the address of the last line
copied.

'(.,.)y'
Copies (yanks) the addressed lines to the cut buffer. The cut buffer is
overwritten by subsequent 'c', 'd', 'j', 's', or 'y' commands. The
current address is unchanged.

'(.+1)zN'
Scroll. Prints N lines at a time starting at addressed line, and sets
window size to N. If N is not specified, then the current window size
is used. Window size defaults to screen size minus two lines, or to 22
if screen size can't be determined. The current address is set to the
address of the last line printed.

'!COMMAND'
Shell escape command. Executes COMMAND via 'sh (1)'. If the first
character of COMMAND is '!', then it is replaced by the text of the
previous '!COMMAND'. Thus, '!!' repeats the previous '!COMMAND'. 'ed'
does not process COMMAND for backslash ('\') escapes. However, each
unescaped '%' is replaced with the default filename, and the backslash
is removed from each escaped '%'. When the shell returns from
execution, a '!' is printed to the standard output. The current
address is unchanged.

'(.,.)#'
Begins a comment; the rest of the line, up to a newline, is ignored.
If a line address followed by a semicolon is given, then the current
address is set to that address. Otherwise, the current address is
unchanged.

'($)='
Prints the line number of the addressed line. The current address is
unchanged.

'(.+1)<newline>'
Null command. An address alone prints the addressed line. A <newline>
alone is equivalent to '+1p'. The current address is set to the address
of the printed line.

File: ed.info, Node: The 's' Command, Next: Limitations, Prev: Commands, Up: Top

7 Substitute command
********************

The substitute command 's' replaces text in the addressed lines matching a
regular expression RE with REPLACEMENT. By default, only the first match in
each line is replaced. The syntax of the 's' command is:

(.,.)s/RE/REPLACEMENT/[SUFFIXES]

The 's' command accepts any combination of the following optional
suffixes:

'g'
'global': replace every match in the line, not just the first.

'COUNT'
A positive number causes only the COUNTth match to be replaced. 'g'
and 'COUNT' can't be specified in the same command.

'l'
'n'
'p'
The usual print suffixes. *Note print suffixes::.

'I'
'i'
The suffix 'I' is a GNU extension which makes 'ed' match RE in a
case-insensitive manner.

It is an error if no substitutions are performed on any of the addressed
lines. The current address is set to the address of the last line on which a
substitution occurred. If a line is split, a substitution is considered to
have occurred on each of the new lines. If no substitution is performed, the
current address is unchanged. The last line modified is copied to the cut
buffer.

RE and REPLACEMENT may be delimited by any character other than <space>,
<newline> and the characters used by the form of the 's' command shown
below. If the last delimiter is omitted, then the last line affected is
printed as if the print suffix 'p' were specified. The last delimiter can't
be omitted if the 's' command is part of a 'g' or 'v' COMMAND-LIST and is
not the last command in the list, because the meaning of the following
escaped newline would become ambiguous.

An unescaped '&' in REPLACEMENT is replaced by the currently matched
text. The character sequence '\M' where M is a number in the range [1,9],
is replaced by the Mth backreference expression of the matched text. If the
corresponding backreference expression does not match, then the character
sequence '\M' is replaced by the empty string. If REPLACEMENT consists of a
single '%', then REPLACEMENT from the last substitution is used.

A line can be split by including a newline escaped with a backslash
('\') in REPLACEMENT. Each backslash in REPLACEMENT removes the special
meaning (if any) of the following character.

'ed' can repeat the last substitution using the following alternative
syntax for the 's' command:

(.,.)s[SUFFIXES]

This form of the 's' command accepts the suffixes 'g' and 'COUNT'
described above, and any combination of the suffixes 'p' and 'r'. The
suffix 'g' toggles the global suffix of the last substitution and resets
COUNT to 1. The suffix 'p' toggles the print suffixes of the last
substitution. The suffix 'r' causes the RE of the last search to be used
instead of the RE of the last substitution (if the search happened after
the substitution).

File: ed.info, Node: Limitations, Next: Diagnostics, Prev: The 's' Command, Up: Top

8 Limitations
*************

If the terminal hangs up, 'ed' attempts to write the buffer to the file
'ed.hup' or, if this fails, to '$HOME/ed.hup'.

'ed' processes FILE arguments for backslash escapes, i.e., in a
filename, any character preceded by a backslash ('\') is interpreted
literally. For example, 'ed 'hello\tworld'' will edit the file
'hellotworld'.

If a text (non-binary) file is not terminated by a newline character,
then 'ed' appends one on reading/writing it. In the case of a binary file,
'ed' does not append a newline on reading/writing. A binary file is one
containing at least one ASCII NUL character. If the last line has been
modified, reading an empty file, for example /dev/null, prior to writing
prevents appending a newline to a binary file.

In order to keep track of the text lines in the buffer, 'ed' uses a
doubly linked list of structures containing the position and size of each
line. This results in a per line overhead of 2 'pointer's, 1 'long int',
and 1 'int'. The maximum line length is INT_MAX - 1 bytes. The maximum
number of lines is INT_MAX - 2 lines.

File: ed.info, Node: Diagnostics, Next: Problems, Prev: Limitations, Up: Top

9 Diagnostics
*************

When an error occurs, if 'ed''s input is from a regular file or here
document, then it exits, otherwise it prints a '?' and returns to command
mode. An explanation of the last error can be printed with the 'h' (help)
command.

If the 'u' (undo) command occurs in a global command list, then the
command list is executed only once.

Attempting to quit 'ed' or edit another file before writing a modified
buffer results in an error. If the command is entered a second time, it
succeeds, but any changes to the buffer are lost.

File: ed.info, Node: Problems, Next: GNU Free Documentation License, Prev: Diagnostics, Up: Top

10 Reporting bugs
*****************

There are probably bugs in 'ed'. There are certainly errors and omissions
in this manual. If you report them, they will get fixed. If you don't, no
one will ever know about them and they will remain unfixed for all
eternity, if not longer.

If you find a bug in 'ed', please send electronic mail to
<bug-ed AT gnu.org>. Include the version number, which you can find by running
'ed --version'.

File: ed.info, Node: GNU Free Documentation License, Prev: Problems, Up: Top

11 GNU Free Documentation License
*********************************

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

0. PREAMBLE

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to
assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
for modifications made by others.

This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative
works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It
complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
license designed for free software.

We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free
program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License
principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that
contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be
distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that
work under the conditions stated herein. The "Document", below,
refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a
licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you
copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission
under copyright law.

A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
modifications and/or translated into another language.

A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of
the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall
directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in
part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain
any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical
connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
them.

The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
that says that the Document is released under this License. If a
section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero
Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant
Sections then there are none.

The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed,
as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.

A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
represented in a format whose specification is available to the
general public, that is suitable for revising the document
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart
or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.
An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount
of text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".

Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML
or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple
HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of
transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats
include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by
proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or
processing tools are not generally available, and the
machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word
processors for output purposes only.

The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means
the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
preceding the beginning of the body of the text.

The "publisher" means any person or entity that distributes copies of
the Document to the public.

A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose
title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following
text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a
specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title"
of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.

The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty
Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this
License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has
no effect on the meaning of this License.

2. VERBATIM COPYING

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other
conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.

You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
you may publicly display copies.

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present
the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition.
Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve
the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
as verbatim copying in other respects.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent
pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
a computer-network location from which the general network-using
public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
(which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous
version if the original publisher of that version gives
permission.

B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or
entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the
Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal
authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has
fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement.

C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified
Version, as the publisher.

D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
adjacent to the other copyright notices.

F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.

G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant
Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license
notice.

H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and
add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors,
and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page.
If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create
one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the
Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing
the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.

J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section.
You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.

K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications",
Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section
all the substance and tone of each of the contributor
acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.

L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in
their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the
equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.

M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may
not be included in the Modified Version.

N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements"
or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.

O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of
Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History"
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
"History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements",
and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections
Entitled "Endorsements."

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other
documents released under this License, and replace the individual
copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy
that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules
of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all
other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and
distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a
copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this
License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that
document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright
resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
the original English version of this License and the original versions
of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between
the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title.

9. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document
except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt
otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and
will automatically terminate your rights under this License.

However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license
from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally,
unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally
terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder
fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to
60 days after the cessation.

Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is
reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the
violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have
received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that
copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after
your receipt of the notice.

Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does
not give you any rights to use it.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the
GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions
will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in
detail to address new problems or concerns. See
'http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/'.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document
specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this
License can be used, that proxy's public statement of acceptance of a
version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the
Document.

11. RELICENSING

"Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site" (or "MMC Site") means any
World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also
provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A
public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A
"Massive Multiauthor Collaboration" (or "MMC") contained in the site
means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.

"CC-BY-SA" means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit
corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco,
California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license
published by that same organization.

"Incorporate" means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in
part, as part of another Document.

An MMC is "eligible for relicensing" if it is licensed under this
License, and if all works that were first published under this License
somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole
or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections,
and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.

The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site
under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009,
provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing.

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
====================================================

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the
License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices
just after the title page:

Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
Free Documentation License''.

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the "with...Texts." line with this:

with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with
the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts
being LIST.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free
software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their
use in free software.

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