# phpman > man > perltie(1)
[PERLTIE(1)](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/man/PERLTIE/1/markdown) Perl Programmers Reference Guide [PERLTIE(1)](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/man/PERLTIE/1/markdown)
## NAME
perltie - how to hide an object class in a simple variable
## SYNOPSIS
tie VARIABLE, CLASSNAME, LIST
$object = tied VARIABLE
untie VARIABLE
## DESCRIPTION
Prior to release 5.0 of Perl, a programmer could use **dbmopen()** to connect an on-disk database
in the standard Unix [**dbm**(3x)](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/man/dbm/3x/markdown) format magically to a %HASH in their program. However, their
Perl was either built with one particular dbm library or another, but not both, and you
couldn't extend this mechanism to other packages or types of variables.
Now you can.
The **tie()** function binds a variable to a class (package) that will provide the implementation
for access methods for that variable. Once this magic has been performed, accessing a tied
variable automatically triggers method calls in the proper class. The complexity of the
class is hidden behind magic methods calls. The method names are in ALL CAPS, which is a
convention that Perl uses to indicate that they're called implicitly rather than
explicitly--just like the **BEGIN()** and **END()** functions.
In the **tie()** call, "VARIABLE" is the name of the variable to be enchanted. "CLASSNAME" is
the name of a class implementing objects of the correct type. Any additional arguments in
the "LIST" are passed to the appropriate constructor method for that class--meaning
**TIESCALAR()**, **TIEARRAY()**, **TIEHASH()**, or **TIEHANDLE()**. (Typically these are arguments such as
might be passed to the **dbminit()** function of C.) The object returned by the "new" method is
also returned by the **tie()** function, which would be useful if you wanted to access other
methods in "CLASSNAME". (You don't actually have to return a reference to a right "type"
(e.g., HASH or "CLASSNAME") so long as it's a properly blessed object.) You can also
retrieve a reference to the underlying object using the **tied()** function.
Unlike **dbmopen()**, the **tie()** function will not "use" or "require" a module for you--you need
to do that explicitly yourself.
### Tying Scalars
A class implementing a tied scalar should define the following methods: TIESCALAR, FETCH,
STORE, and possibly UNTIE and/or DESTROY.
Let's look at each in turn, using as an example a tie class for scalars that allows the user
to do something like:
tie $his_speed, 'Nice', getppid();
tie $my_speed, 'Nice', $$;
And now whenever either of those variables is accessed, its current system priority is
retrieved and returned. If those variables are set, then the process's priority is changed!
We'll use Jarkko Hietaniemi <<_jhi@iki.fi_>>'s [BSD::Resource](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/BSD%3A%3AResource/markdown) class (not included) to access the
PRIO_PROCESS, PRIO_MIN, and PRIO_MAX constants from your system, as well as the **getpriority()**
and **setpriority()** system calls. Here's the preamble of the class.
package Nice;
use Carp;
use [BSD::Resource](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/BSD%3A%3AResource/markdown);
use strict;
$[Nice::DEBUG](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Nice%3A%3ADEBUG/markdown) = 0 unless defined $[Nice::DEBUG](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Nice%3A%3ADEBUG/markdown);
TIESCALAR classname, LIST
This is the constructor for the class. That means it is expected to return a blessed
reference to a new scalar (probably anonymous) that it's creating. For example:
sub TIESCALAR {
my $class = shift;
my $pid = shift || $$; # 0 means me
if ($pid !~ /^\d+$/) {
carp "[Nice::Tie::Scalar](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Nice%3A%3ATie%3A%3AScalar/markdown) got non-numeric pid $pid" if $^W;
return undef;
}
unless (kill 0, $pid) { # EPERM or ERSCH, no doubt
carp "[Nice::Tie::Scalar](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Nice%3A%3ATie%3A%3AScalar/markdown) got bad pid $pid: $!" if $^W;
return undef;
}
return bless \$pid, $class;
}
This tie class has chosen to return an error rather than raising an exception if its
constructor should fail. While this is how **dbmopen()** works, other classes may well not
wish to be so forgiving. It checks the global variable $^W to see whether to emit a bit
of noise anyway.
FETCH this
This method will be triggered every time the tied variable is accessed (read). It takes
no arguments beyond its self reference, which is the object representing the scalar we're
dealing with. Because in this case we're using just a SCALAR ref for the tied scalar
object, a simple $$self allows the method to get at the real value stored there. In our
example below, that real value is the process ID to which we've tied our variable.
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
croak "usage error" if @_;
my $nicety;
local($!) = 0;
$nicety = getpriority(PRIO_PROCESS, $$self);
if ($!) { croak "getpriority failed: $!" }
return $nicety;
}
This time we've decided to blow up (raise an exception) if the renice fails--there's no
place for us to return an error otherwise, and it's probably the right thing to do.
STORE this, value
This method will be triggered every time the tied variable is set (assigned). Beyond its
self reference, it also expects one (and only one) argument: the new value the user is
trying to assign. Don't worry about returning a value from STORE; the semantic of
assignment returning the assigned value is implemented with FETCH.
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
my $new_nicety = shift;
croak "usage error" if @_;
if ($new_nicety < PRIO_MIN) {
carp sprintf
"WARNING: priority %d less than minimum system priority %d",
$new_nicety, PRIO_MIN if $^W;
$new_nicety = PRIO_MIN;
}
if ($new_nicety > PRIO_MAX) {
carp sprintf
"WARNING: priority %d greater than maximum system priority %d",
$new_nicety, PRIO_MAX if $^W;
$new_nicety = PRIO_MAX;
}
unless (defined setpriority(PRIO_PROCESS,
$$self,
$new_nicety))
{
confess "setpriority failed: $!";
}
}
UNTIE this
This method will be triggered when the "untie" occurs. This can be useful if the class
needs to know when no further calls will be made. (Except DESTROY of course.) See "The
"untie" Gotcha" below for more details.
DESTROY this
This method will be triggered when the tied variable needs to be destructed. As with
other object classes, such a method is seldom necessary, because Perl deallocates its
moribund object's memory for you automatically--this isn't C++, you know. We'll use a
DESTROY method here for debugging purposes only.
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
carp "[ [Nice::DESTROY](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Nice%3A%3ADESTROY/markdown) pid $$self ]" if $[Nice::DEBUG](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Nice%3A%3ADEBUG/markdown);
}
That's about all there is to it. Actually, it's more than all there is to it, because we've
done a few nice things here for the sake of completeness, robustness, and general aesthetics.
Simpler TIESCALAR classes are certainly possible.
### Tying Arrays
A class implementing a tied ordinary array should define the following methods: TIEARRAY,
FETCH, STORE, FETCHSIZE, STORESIZE, CLEAR and perhaps UNTIE and/or DESTROY.
FETCHSIZE and STORESIZE are used to provide $#array and equivalent "scalar(@array)" access.
The methods POP, PUSH, SHIFT, UNSHIFT, SPLICE, DELETE, and EXISTS are required if the perl
operator with the corresponding (but lowercase) name is to operate on the tied array. The
[**Tie::Array**](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Tie%3A%3AArray/markdown) class can be used as a base class to implement the first five of these in terms of
the basic methods above. The default implementations of DELETE and EXISTS in [**Tie::Array**](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Tie%3A%3AArray/markdown)
simply "croak".
In addition EXTEND will be called when perl would have pre-extended allocation in a real
array.
For this discussion, we'll implement an array whose elements are a fixed size at creation.
If you try to create an element larger than the fixed size, you'll take an exception. For
example:
use FixedElem_Array;
tie @array, 'FixedElem_Array', 3;
$array[0] = 'cat'; # ok.
$array[1] = 'dogs'; # exception, length('dogs') > 3.
The preamble code for the class is as follows:
package FixedElem_Array;
use Carp;
use strict;
TIEARRAY classname, LIST
This is the constructor for the class. That means it is expected to return a blessed
reference through which the new array (probably an anonymous ARRAY ref) will be accessed.
In our example, just to show you that you don't _really_ have to return an ARRAY reference,
we'll choose a HASH reference to represent our object. A HASH works out well as a
generic record type: the "{ELEMSIZE}" field will store the maximum element size allowed,
and the "{ARRAY}" field will hold the true ARRAY ref. If someone outside the class tries
to dereference the object returned (doubtless thinking it an ARRAY ref), they'll blow up.
This just goes to show you that you should respect an object's privacy.
sub TIEARRAY {
my $class = shift;
my $elemsize = shift;
if ( @_ || $elemsize =~ /\D/ ) {
croak "usage: tie ARRAY, '" . __PACKAGE__ . "', elem_size";
}
return bless {
ELEMSIZE => $elemsize,
ARRAY => [],
}, $class;
}
FETCH this, index
This method will be triggered every time an individual element the tied array is accessed
(read). It takes one argument beyond its self reference: the index whose value we're
trying to fetch.
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return $self->{ARRAY}->[$index];
}
If a negative array index is used to read from an array, the index will be translated to
a positive one internally by calling FETCHSIZE before being passed to FETCH. You may
disable this feature by assigning a true value to the variable $NEGATIVE_INDICES in the
tied array class.
As you may have noticed, the name of the FETCH method (et al.) is the same for all
accesses, even though the constructors differ in names (TIESCALAR vs TIEARRAY). While in
theory you could have the same class servicing several tied types, in practice this
becomes cumbersome, and it's easiest to keep them at simply one tie type per class.
STORE this, index, value
This method will be triggered every time an element in the tied array is set (written).
It takes two arguments beyond its self reference: the index at which we're trying to
store something and the value we're trying to put there.
In our example, "undef" is really "$self->{ELEMSIZE}" number of spaces so we have a
little more work to do here:
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
my( $index, $value ) = @_;
if ( length $value > $self->{ELEMSIZE} ) {
croak "length of $value is greater than $self->{ELEMSIZE}";
}
# fill in the blanks
$self->STORESIZE( $index ) if $index > $self->FETCHSIZE();
# right justify to keep element size for smaller elements
$self->{ARRAY}->[$index] = sprintf "%$self->{ELEMSIZE}s", $value;
}
Negative indexes are treated the same as with FETCH.
FETCHSIZE this
Returns the total number of items in the tied array associated with object _this_.
(Equivalent to "scalar(@array)"). For example:
sub FETCHSIZE {
my $self = shift;
return scalar $self->{ARRAY}->@*;
}
STORESIZE this, count
Sets the total number of items in the tied array associated with object _this_ to be _count_.
If this makes the array larger then class's mapping of "undef" should be returned for new
positions. If the array becomes smaller then entries beyond count should be deleted.
In our example, 'undef' is really an element containing "$self->{ELEMSIZE}" number of
spaces. Observe:
sub STORESIZE {
my $self = shift;
my $count = shift;
if ( $count > $self->FETCHSIZE() ) {
foreach ( $count - $self->FETCHSIZE() .. $count ) {
$self->STORE( $_, '' );
}
} elsif ( $count < $self->FETCHSIZE() ) {
foreach ( 0 .. $self->FETCHSIZE() - $count - 2 ) {
$self->POP();
}
}
}
EXTEND this, count
Informative call that array is likely to grow to have _count_ entries. Can be used to
optimize allocation. This method need do nothing.
In our example there is no reason to implement this method, so we leave it as a no-op.
This method is only relevant to tied array implementations where there is the possibility
of having the allocated size of the array be larger than is visible to a perl programmer
inspecting the size of the array. Many tied array implementations will have no reason to
implement it.
sub EXTEND {
my $self = shift;
my $count = shift;
# nothing to see here, move along.
}
**NOTE:** It is generally an error to make this equivalent to STORESIZE. Perl may from time
to time call EXTEND without wanting to actually change the array size directly. Any tied
array should function correctly if this method is a no-op, even if perhaps they might not
be as efficient as they would if this method was implemented.
EXISTS this, key
Verify that the element at index _key_ exists in the tied array _this_.
In our example, we will determine that if an element consists of "$self->{ELEMSIZE}"
spaces only, it does not exist:
sub EXISTS {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return 0 if ! defined $self->{ARRAY}->[$index] ||
$self->{ARRAY}->[$index] eq ' ' x $self->{ELEMSIZE};
return 1;
}
DELETE this, key
Delete the element at index _key_ from the tied array _this_.
In our example, a deleted item is "$self->{ELEMSIZE}" spaces:
sub DELETE {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return $self->STORE( $index, '' );
}
CLEAR this
Clear (remove, delete, ...) all values from the tied array associated with object _this_.
For example:
sub CLEAR {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{ARRAY} = [];
}
PUSH this, LIST
Append elements of _LIST_ to the array. For example:
sub PUSH {
my $self = shift;
my @list = @_;
my $last = $self->FETCHSIZE();
$self->STORE( $last + $_, $list[$_] ) foreach 0 .. $#list;
return $self->FETCHSIZE();
}
POP this
Remove last element of the array and return it. For example:
sub POP {
my $self = shift;
return pop $self->{ARRAY}->@*;
}
SHIFT this
Remove the first element of the array (shifting other elements down) and return it. For
example:
sub SHIFT {
my $self = shift;
return shift $self->{ARRAY}->@*;
}
UNSHIFT this, LIST
Insert LIST elements at the beginning of the array, moving existing elements up to make
room. For example:
sub UNSHIFT {
my $self = shift;
my @list = @_;
my $size = scalar( @list );
# make room for our list
$self->{ARRAY}[ $size .. $self->{ARRAY}->$#* + $size ]->@*
= $self->{ARRAY}->@*
$self->STORE( $_, $list[$_] ) foreach 0 .. $#list;
}
SPLICE this, offset, length, LIST
Perform the equivalent of "splice" on the array.
_offset_ is optional and defaults to zero, negative values count back from the end of the
array.
_length_ is optional and defaults to rest of the array.
_LIST_ may be empty.
Returns a list of the original _length_ elements at _offset_.
In our example, we'll use a little shortcut if there is a _LIST_:
sub SPLICE {
my $self = shift;
my $offset = shift || 0;
my $length = shift || $self->FETCHSIZE() - $offset;
my @list = ();
if ( @_ ) {
tie @list, __PACKAGE__, $self->{ELEMSIZE};
@list = @_;
}
return splice $self->{ARRAY}->@*, $offset, $length, @list;
}
UNTIE this
Will be called when "untie" happens. (See "The "untie" Gotcha" below.)
DESTROY this
This method will be triggered when the tied variable needs to be destructed. As with the
scalar tie class, this is almost never needed in a language that does its own garbage
collection, so this time we'll just leave it out.
### Tying Hashes
Hashes were the first Perl data type to be tied (see **dbmopen()**). A class implementing a tied
hash should define the following methods: TIEHASH is the constructor. FETCH and STORE access
the key and value pairs. EXISTS reports whether a key is present in the hash, and DELETE
deletes one. CLEAR empties the hash by deleting all the key and value pairs. FIRSTKEY and
NEXTKEY implement the **keys()** and **each()** functions to iterate over all the keys. SCALAR is
triggered when the tied hash is evaluated in scalar context, and in 5.28 onwards, by "keys"
in boolean context. UNTIE is called when "untie" happens, and DESTROY is called when the tied
variable is garbage collected.
If this seems like a lot, then feel free to inherit from merely the standard [Tie::StdHash](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Tie%3A%3AStdHash/markdown)
module for most of your methods, redefining only the interesting ones. See [Tie::Hash](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Tie%3A%3AHash/markdown) for
details.
Remember that Perl distinguishes between a key not existing in the hash, and the key existing
in the hash but having a corresponding value of "undef". The two possibilities can be tested
with the "exists()" and "defined()" functions.
Here's an example of a somewhat interesting tied hash class: it gives you a hash
representing a particular user's dot files. You index into the hash with the name of the
file (minus the dot) and you get back that dot file's contents. For example:
use DotFiles;
tie %dot, 'DotFiles';
if ( $dot{profile} =~ /MANPATH/ ||
$dot{login} =~ /MANPATH/ ||
$dot{cshrc} =~ /MANPATH/ )
{
print "you seem to set your MANPATH\n";
}
Or here's another sample of using our tied class:
tie %him, 'DotFiles', 'daemon';
foreach $f ( keys %him ) {
printf "daemon dot file %s is size %d\n",
$f, length $him{$f};
}
In our tied hash DotFiles example, we use a regular hash for the object containing several
important fields, of which only the "{LIST}" field will be what the user thinks of as the
real hash.
USER whose dot files this object represents
HOME where those dot files live
CLOBBER
whether we should try to change or remove those dot files
LIST the hash of dot file names and content mappings
Here's the start of _Dotfiles.pm_:
package DotFiles;
use Carp;
sub whowasi { ([caller(1)](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/man/caller/1/markdown))[3] . '()' }
my $DEBUG = 0;
sub debug { $DEBUG = @_ ? shift : 1 }
For our example, we want to be able to emit debugging info to help in tracing during
development. We keep also one convenience function around internally to help print out
warnings; **whowasi()** returns the function name that calls it.
Here are the methods for the DotFiles tied hash.
TIEHASH classname, LIST
This is the constructor for the class. That means it is expected to return a blessed
reference through which the new object (probably but not necessarily an anonymous hash)
will be accessed.
Here's the constructor:
sub TIEHASH {
my $self = shift;
my $user = shift || $>;
my $dotdir = shift || '';
croak "usage: @{[&whowasi]} [USER [DOTDIR]]" if @_;
$user = getpwuid($user) if $user =~ /^\d+$/;
my $dir = (getpwnam($user))[7]
|| croak "@{[&whowasi]}: no user $user";
$dir .= "/$dotdir" if $dotdir;
my $node = {
USER => $user,
HOME => $dir,
LIST => {},
CLOBBER => 0,
};
opendir(DIR, $dir)
|| croak "@{[&whowasi]}: can't opendir $dir: $!";
foreach $dot ( grep /^\./ && -f "$dir/$_", readdir(DIR)) {
$dot =~ s/^\.//;
$node->{LIST}{$dot} = undef;
}
closedir DIR;
return bless $node, $self;
}
It's probably worth mentioning that if you're going to filetest the return values out of
a readdir, you'd better prepend the directory in question. Otherwise, because we didn't
**chdir()** there, it would have been testing the wrong file.
FETCH this, key
This method will be triggered every time an element in the tied hash is accessed (read).
It takes one argument beyond its self reference: the key whose value we're trying to
fetch.
Here's the fetch for our DotFiles example.
sub FETCH {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $dir = $self->{HOME};
my $file = "$dir/.$dot";
unless (exists $self->{LIST}->{$dot} || -f $file) {
carp "@{[&whowasi]}: no $dot file" if $DEBUG;
return undef;
}
if (defined $self->{LIST}->{$dot}) {
return $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
} else {
return $self->{LIST}->{$dot} = `cat $dir/.$dot`;
}
}
It was easy to write by having it call the Unix [**cat**(1)](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/man/cat/1/markdown) command, but it would probably be
more portable to open the file manually (and somewhat more efficient). Of course,
because dot files are a Unixy concept, we're not that concerned.
STORE this, key, value
This method will be triggered every time an element in the tied hash is set (written).
It takes two arguments beyond its self reference: the index at which we're trying to
store something, and the value we're trying to put there.
Here in our DotFiles example, we'll be careful not to let them try to overwrite the file
unless they've called the **clobber()** method on the original object reference returned by
**tie()**.
sub STORE {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $value = shift;
my $file = $self->{HOME} . "/.$dot";
my $user = $self->{USER};
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: $file not clobberable"
unless $self->{CLOBBER};
open(my $f, '>', $file) || croak "can't open $file: $!";
print $f $value;
close($f);
}
If they wanted to clobber something, they might say:
$ob = tie %daemon_dots, 'daemon';
$ob->[clobber(1)](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/man/clobber/1/markdown);
$daemon_dots{signature} = "A true daemon\n";
Another way to lay hands on a reference to the underlying object is to use the **tied()**
function, so they might alternately have set clobber using:
tie %daemon_dots, 'daemon';
tied(%daemon_dots)->[clobber(1)](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/man/clobber/1/markdown);
The clobber method is simply:
sub clobber {
my $self = shift;
$self->{CLOBBER} = @_ ? shift : 1;
}
DELETE this, key
This method is triggered when we remove an element from the hash, typically by using the
**delete()** function. Again, we'll be careful to check whether they really want to clobber
files.
sub DELETE {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $file = $self->{HOME} . "/.$dot";
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: won't remove file $file"
unless $self->{CLOBBER};
delete $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
my $success = unlink($file);
carp "@{[&whowasi]}: can't unlink $file: $!" unless $success;
$success;
}
The value returned by DELETE becomes the return value of the call to **delete()**. If you
want to emulate the normal behavior of **delete()**, you should return whatever FETCH would
have returned for this key. In this example, we have chosen instead to return a value
which tells the caller whether the file was successfully deleted.
CLEAR this
This method is triggered when the whole hash is to be cleared, usually by assigning the
empty list to it.
In our example, that would remove all the user's dot files! It's such a dangerous thing
that they'll have to set CLOBBER to something higher than 1 to make it happen.
sub CLEAR {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: won't remove all dot files for $self->{USER}"
unless $self->{CLOBBER} > 1;
my $dot;
foreach $dot ( keys $self->{LIST}->%* ) {
$self->DELETE($dot);
}
}
EXISTS this, key
This method is triggered when the user uses the **exists()** function on a particular hash.
In our example, we'll look at the "{LIST}" hash element for this:
sub EXISTS {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
return exists $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
}
FIRSTKEY this
This method will be triggered when the user is going to iterate through the hash, such as
via a **keys()**, **values()**, or **each()** call.
sub FIRSTKEY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $a = keys $self->{LIST}->%*; # reset each() iterator
each $self->{LIST}->%*
}
FIRSTKEY is always called in scalar context and it should just return the first key.
**values()**, and **each()** in list context, will call FETCH for the returned keys.
NEXTKEY this, lastkey
This method gets triggered during a **keys()**, **values()**, or **each()** iteration. It has a
second argument which is the last key that had been accessed. This is useful if you're
caring about ordering or calling the iterator from more than one sequence, or not really
storing things in a hash anywhere.
NEXTKEY is always called in scalar context and it should just return the next key.
**values()**, and **each()** in list context, will call FETCH for the returned keys.
For our example, we're using a real hash so we'll do just the simple thing, but we'll
have to go through the LIST field indirectly.
sub NEXTKEY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
return each $self->{LIST}->%*
}
If the object underlying your tied hash isn't a real hash and you don't have "each"
available, then you should return "undef" or the empty list once you've reached the end
of your list of keys. See "each's own documentation" for more details.
SCALAR this
This is called when the hash is evaluated in scalar context, and in 5.28 onwards, by
"keys" in boolean context. In order to mimic the behaviour of untied hashes, this method
must return a value which when used as boolean, indicates whether the tied hash is
considered empty. If this method does not exist, perl will make some educated guesses and
return true when the hash is inside an iteration. If this isn't the case, FIRSTKEY is
called, and the result will be a false value if FIRSTKEY returns the empty list, true
otherwise.
However, you should **not** blindly rely on perl always doing the right thing. Particularly,
perl will mistakenly return true when you clear the hash by repeatedly calling DELETE
until it is empty. You are therefore advised to supply your own SCALAR method when you
want to be absolutely sure that your hash behaves nicely in scalar context.
In our example we can just call "scalar" on the underlying hash referenced by
"$self->{LIST}":
sub SCALAR {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
return scalar $self->{LIST}->%*
}
NOTE: In perl 5.25 the behavior of scalar %hash on an untied hash changed to return the
count of keys. Prior to this it returned a string containing information about the bucket
setup of the hash. See "bucket_ratio" in [Hash::Util](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Hash%3A%3AUtil/markdown) for a backwards compatibility path.
UNTIE this
This is called when "untie" occurs. See "The "untie" Gotcha" below.
DESTROY this
This method is triggered when a tied hash is about to go out of scope. You don't really
need it unless you're trying to add debugging or have auxiliary state to clean up.
Here's a very simple function:
sub DESTROY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
}
Note that functions such as **keys()** and **values()** may return huge lists when used on large
objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to use the **each()** function to iterate over such.
Example:
# print out history file offsets
use NDBM_File;
tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0);
while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
}
untie(%HIST);
### Tying FileHandles
This is partially implemented now.
A class implementing a tied filehandle should define the following methods: TIEHANDLE, at
least one of PRINT, PRINTF, WRITE, READLINE, GETC, READ, and possibly CLOSE, UNTIE and
DESTROY. The class can also provide: BINMODE, OPEN, EOF, FILENO, SEEK, TELL - if the
corresponding perl operators are used on the handle.
When STDERR is tied, its PRINT method will be called to issue warnings and error messages.
This feature is temporarily disabled during the call, which means you can use "warn()" inside
PRINT without starting a recursive loop. And just like "__WARN__" and "__DIE__" handlers,
STDERR's PRINT method may be called to report parser errors, so the caveats mentioned under
"%SIG" in perlvar apply.
All of this is especially useful when perl is embedded in some other program, where output to
STDOUT and STDERR may have to be redirected in some special way. See nvi and the Apache
module for examples.
When tying a handle, the first argument to "tie" should begin with an asterisk. So, if you
are tying STDOUT, use *STDOUT. If you have assigned it to a scalar variable, say $handle,
use *$handle. "tie $handle" ties the scalar variable $handle, not the handle inside it.
In our example we're going to create a shouting handle.
package Shout;
TIEHANDLE classname, LIST
This is the constructor for the class. That means it is expected to return a blessed
reference of some sort. The reference can be used to hold some internal information.
sub TIEHANDLE { print "\n"; my $i; bless \$i, shift }
WRITE this, LIST
This method will be called when the handle is written to via the "syswrite" function.
sub WRITE {
$r = shift;
my($buf,$len,$offset) = @_;
print "WRITE called, \$buf=$buf, \$len=$len, \$offset=$offset";
}
PRINT this, LIST
This method will be triggered every time the tied handle is printed to with the "print()"
or "say()" functions. Beyond its self reference it also expects the list that was passed
to the print function.
sub PRINT { $r = shift; $$r++; print join($,,map(uc($_),@_)),$\ }
"say()" acts just like "print()" except $\ will be localized to "\n" so you need do
nothing special to handle "say()" in "PRINT()".
PRINTF this, LIST
This method will be triggered every time the tied handle is printed to with the
"printf()" function. Beyond its self reference it also expects the format and list that
was passed to the printf function.
sub PRINTF {
shift;
my $fmt = shift;
print sprintf($fmt, @_);
}
READ this, LIST
This method will be called when the handle is read from via the "read" or "sysread"
functions.
sub READ {
my $self = shift;
my $bufref = \$_[0];
my(undef,$len,$offset) = @_;
print "READ called, \$buf=$bufref, \$len=$len, \$offset=$offset";
# add to $$bufref, set $len to number of characters read
$len;
}
READLINE this
This method is called when the handle is read via "" or "readline HANDLE".
As per "readline", in scalar context it should return the next line, or "undef" for no
more data. In list context it should return all remaining lines, or an empty list for no
more data. The strings returned should include the input record separator $/ (see
perlvar), unless it is "undef" (which means "slurp" mode).
sub READLINE {
my $r = shift;
if (wantarray) {
return ("all remaining\n",
"lines up\n",
"to eof\n");
} else {
return "READLINE called " . ++$$r . " times\n";
}
}
GETC this
This method will be called when the "getc" function is called.
sub GETC { print "Don't GETC, Get Perl"; return "a"; }
EOF this
This method will be called when the "eof" function is called.
Starting with Perl 5.12, an additional integer parameter will be passed. It will be zero
if "eof" is called without parameter; 1 if "eof" is given a filehandle as a parameter,
e.g. "eof(FH)"; and 2 in the very special case that the tied filehandle is "ARGV" and
"eof" is called with an empty parameter list, e.g. "eof()".
sub EOF { not length $stringbuf }
CLOSE this
This method will be called when the handle is closed via the "close" function.
sub CLOSE { print "CLOSE called.\n" }
UNTIE this
As with the other types of ties, this method will be called when "untie" happens. It may
be appropriate to "auto CLOSE" when this occurs. See "The "untie" Gotcha" below.
DESTROY this
As with the other types of ties, this method will be called when the tied handle is about
to be destroyed. This is useful for debugging and possibly cleaning up.
sub DESTROY { print "\n" }
Here's how to use our little example:
tie(*FOO,'Shout');
print FOO "hello\n";
$a = 4; $b = 6;
print FOO $a, " plus ", $b, " equals ", $a + $b, "\n";
print ;
### UNTIE this
You can define for all tie types an UNTIE method that will be called at **untie()**. See "The
"untie" Gotcha" below.
### The "untie" Gotcha
If you intend making use of the object returned from either **tie()** or **tied()**, and if the tie's
target class defines a destructor, there is a subtle gotcha you _must_ guard against.
As setup, consider this (admittedly rather contrived) example of a tie; all it does is use a
file to keep a log of the values assigned to a scalar.
package Remember;
use strict;
use warnings;
use [IO::File](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/IO%3A%3AFile/markdown);
sub TIESCALAR {
my $class = shift;
my $filename = shift;
my $handle = [IO::File](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/IO%3A%3AFile/markdown)->new( "> $filename" )
or die "Cannot open $filename: $!\n";
print $handle "The Start\n";
bless {FH => $handle, Value => 0}, $class;
}
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{Value};
}
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
my $value = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle "$value\n";
$self->{Value} = $value;
}
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle "The End\n";
close $handle;
}
1;
Here is an example that makes use of this tie:
use strict;
use Remember;
my $fred;
tie $fred, 'Remember', 'myfile.txt';
$fred = 1;
$fred = 4;
$fred = 5;
untie $fred;
system "cat myfile.txt";
This is the output when it is executed:
The Start
1
4
5
The End
So far so good. Those of you who have been paying attention will have spotted that the tied
object hasn't been used so far. So lets add an extra method to the Remember class to allow
comments to be included in the file; say, something like this:
sub comment {
my $self = shift;
my $text = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle $text, "\n";
}
And here is the previous example modified to use the "comment" method (which requires the
tied object):
use strict;
use Remember;
my ($fred, $x);
$x = tie $fred, 'Remember', 'myfile.txt';
$fred = 1;
$fred = 4;
comment $x "changing...";
$fred = 5;
untie $fred;
system "cat myfile.txt";
When this code is executed there is no output. Here's why:
When a variable is tied, it is associated with the object which is the return value of the
TIESCALAR, TIEARRAY, or TIEHASH function. This object normally has only one reference,
namely, the implicit reference from the tied variable. When **untie()** is called, that
reference is destroyed. Then, as in the first example above, the object's destructor
(DESTROY) is called, which is normal for objects that have no more valid references; and thus
the file is closed.
In the second example, however, we have stored another reference to the tied object in $x.
That means that when **untie()** gets called there will still be a valid reference to the object
in existence, so the destructor is not called at that time, and thus the file is not closed.
The reason there is no output is because the file buffers have not been flushed to disk.
Now that you know what the problem is, what can you do to avoid it? Prior to the
introduction of the optional UNTIE method the only way was the good old "-w" flag. Which will
spot any instances where you call **untie()** and there are still valid references to the tied
object. If the second script above this near the top "use warnings 'untie'" or was run with
the "-w" flag, Perl prints this warning message:
untie attempted while 1 inner references still exist
To get the script to work properly and silence the warning make sure there are no valid
references to the tied object _before_ **untie()** is called:
undef $x;
untie $fred;
Now that UNTIE exists the class designer can decide which parts of the class functionality
are really associated with "untie" and which with the object being destroyed. What makes
sense for a given class depends on whether the inner references are being kept so that non-
tie-related methods can be called on the object. But in most cases it probably makes sense to
move the functionality that would have been in DESTROY to the UNTIE method.
If the UNTIE method exists then the warning above does not occur. Instead the UNTIE method is
passed the count of "extra" references and can issue its own warning if appropriate. e.g. to
replicate the no UNTIE case this method can be used:
sub UNTIE
{
my ($obj,$count) = @_;
carp "untie attempted while $count inner references still exist"
if $count;
}
## SEE ALSO
See DB_File or Config for some interesting **tie()** implementations. A good starting point for
many **tie()** implementations is with one of the modules [Tie::Scalar](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Tie%3A%3AScalar/markdown), [Tie::Array](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Tie%3A%3AArray/markdown), [Tie::Hash](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Tie%3A%3AHash/markdown), or
[Tie::Handle](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/Tie%3A%3AHandle/markdown).
## BUGS
The normal return provided by "scalar(%hash)" is not available. What this means is that
using %tied_hash in boolean context doesn't work right (currently this always tests false,
regardless of whether the hash is empty or hash elements). [ This paragraph needs review in
light of changes in 5.25 ]
Localizing tied arrays or hashes does not work. After exiting the scope the arrays or the
hashes are not restored.
Counting the number of entries in a hash via "scalar(keys(%hash))" or "scalar(values(%hash)")
is inefficient since it needs to iterate through all the entries with FIRSTKEY/NEXTKEY.
Tied hash/array slices cause multiple FETCH/STORE pairs, there are no tie methods for slice
operations.
You cannot easily tie a multilevel data structure (such as a hash of hashes) to a dbm file.
The first problem is that all but GDBM and Berkeley DB have size limitations, but beyond
that, you also have problems with how references are to be represented on disk. One module
that does attempt to address this need is [DBM::Deep](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/DBM%3A%3ADeep/markdown). Check your nearest CPAN site as
described in perlmodlib for source code. Note that despite its name, [DBM::Deep](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/perldoc/DBM%3A%3ADeep/markdown) does not use
dbm. Another earlier attempt at solving the problem is MLDBM, which is also available on the
CPAN, but which has some fairly serious limitations.
Tied filehandles are still incomplete. **sysopen()**, **truncate()**, **flock()**, **fcntl()**, **stat()** and
-X can't currently be trapped.
## AUTHOR
Tom Christiansen
TIEHANDLE by Sven Verdoolaege <<_skimo@dns.ufsia.ac.be_>> and Doug MacEachern <<_dougm@osf.org_>>
UNTIE by Nick Ing-Simmons <<_nick@ing-simmons.net_>>
SCALAR by Tassilo von Parseval <<_tassilo.von.parseval@rwth-aachen.de_>>
Tying Arrays by Casey West <<_casey@geeknest.com_>>
perl v5.34.0 2025-07-25 [PERLTIE(1)](https://www.chedong.com/phpMan.php/man/PERLTIE/1/markdown)